The Deconstruction of the European Allegory; Cannibal Talk: The Man-Eating Myth and Human Sacrifice in the South Seas by Gananath Obeyesekere

 

 

Gananath Obeyesekere, Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at Princeton University, critically examines the Western European narrative surrounding cannibalism in his 2005 work, Cannibal Talk: The Man-Eating Myth and Human Sacrifice in the South Seas. Obeyesekere challenges the entrenched narrative that portrays the white man as a civilizing force in the world. Through a critical analysis of Captain Cook's voyages and the subsequent mythologizing of his figure, Obeyesekere deconstructs the romanticized view of European explorers as benevolent agents of progress. He contends that the mythologized portrayal of cannibalism serves as a reflection of European societies' own obsessions and has been used to rationalize acts of colonial violence. Through a thorough analysis of early European eyewitness accounts, Obeyesekere argues that these narratives were largely fabrications by Western sailors, lacking an accurate representation of the realities they purported to describe. He emphasizes that the claims of cannibalism are often devoid of empirical support, revealing the constructed nature of these myths.

 

A Cannibal

A cannibal refers to an organism, including humans, that consumes the flesh of others within the same species. The term was popularized by Christopher Columbus after European explorers arrived in the Americas, where it was employed by colonizers as a means to facilitate their expansionist agendas. By branding non-Western individuals as "savages" or "cannibals," colonizers sought to depict them as uncivilized and morally inferior, thereby justifying their own violent actions and the imposition of European values. This labeling served to rationalize the brutalities of slavery, conquest, and colonization, framing these acts as a form of bringing civilization to what they perceived as a primitive and perilous world.

 

Cannibalism

Cannibalism refers to the practice of one organism consuming another individual of the same species, a phenomenon that can be observed across various animal groups and has also been documented in human history, where it is specifically termed "anthropophagy." The motivations behind this behavior are diverse, ranging from survival instincts triggered by environmental pressures such as scarcity of food or conflict to more intricate cultural, religious, or ritualistic reasons, including spiritual beliefs or the desire to gain the strength of a defeated adversary. In the animal kingdom, cannibalism may serve as a natural adaptive response to challenging ecological conditions, whereas in humans, it has manifested in numerous forms and contexts throughout different cultures and eras, despite being largely regarded as taboo in many contemporary societies.

  

Exo-Cannibalism and Endo-Cannibalism

Exocannibalism refers to the act of consuming the flesh of individuals who belong to different social groups, typically those perceived as enemies or outsiders. This practice is often employed as a means of asserting dominance and inflicting humiliation during conflicts, serving not only as a method of revenge but also as a way to symbolically absorb the attributes of the vanquished.

In contrast, endocannibalism involves the consumption of human flesh from within one’s own community, frequently observed in funerary rituals, such as those practiced by the Fore people of Papua New Guinea. This form of cannibalism is often imbued with deep emotional significance, acting as a gesture of love, a means of mourning, or a way to assist the deceased in their journey to the afterlife. However, it is important to note that such practices can also pose health risks.

The examination of both exocannibalism and endocannibalism offers valuable insights into diverse cultural practices and their motivations, which can range from a profound respect for the deceased to expressions of aggression and territoriality. By studying these forms of cannibalism, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of various cultural phenomena, including the processes of grief, beliefs surrounding life after death, the social dynamics of identity formation (distinguishing between friend and foe), and the symbolic implications of consumption within human societies.

  

Conspicuous Anthropophagy

Obeyesekere acknowledges that certain indigenous cultures, such as the Maori of New Zealand and various tribes in South America, engaged in the practice of conspicuous anthropophagy. This ritualistic consumption of human flesh was often rooted in warrior traditions, serving purposes such as the absorption of an enemy's strength, the expression of respect for the fallen, or the demonstration of power and dominance. Additionally, the concept of anthropophagy extends into the realm of cultural consumption, where foreign elements are symbolically "ingested" and assimilated into a culture. It is important to recognize that every culture harbors its own xenophobic tendencies, which can be attributed to a complex interplay of evolutionary, personal, and environmental influences. These factors contribute to the phenomenon of xenophobia, which is often deeply embedded in the collective unconscious of societies, shaping attitudes and behaviors toward the unfamiliar and the other.

 

Cannibalism in Polynesian Societies

Cannibalism was practiced in certain Polynesian societies, notably in Fiji and the Marquesas, primarily as a ritualistic expression of warfare and a demonstration of dominance, rather than out of necessity for survival. European colonial narratives, however, frequently exaggerated these instances, framing them as widespread phenomena to perpetuate stereotypes about indigenous populations and to rationalize their colonial endeavors. While there is evidence that limited forms of cannibalism existed, often linked to human sacrifice, these practices were typically selective and deeply intertwined with intricate religious and political ceremonies, rather than being a common aspect of daily life. This nuanced understanding challenges the simplistic and sensationalized portrayals that have historically overshadowed the rich cultural contexts of these societies.

  

European Fascination with Cannibalism

The European intrigue with cannibalism was steeped in a complex web of hypocrisy, where the notion of "savage" cannibalism served as a convenient justification for colonial expansion. This perspective allowed colonizers to portray indigenous peoples as barbaric, thereby legitimizing their own exploitative practices. Paradoxically, Europe itself engaged in what could be termed "medicinal cannibalism," wherein human flesh was consumed under the belief that it possessed curative properties. A notable example of this was the use of mumia, a substance made from ground human remains, which was widely regarded as an effective treatment for a variety of health issues. The portrayal of cannibalism as a marker of savagery functioned as a powerful rhetorical device, yet it simultaneously masked the often contradictory and unsettling reality of Europe's own historical engagement with the consumption of human remains, whether for medicinal purposes or, in some instances, even for culinary enjoyment.

Cannibalism in Europe

Cannibalism in Europe avows a complex and multifaceted history, manifesting in various forms such as funerary rituals, survival strategies during periods of famine, and even medicinal practices. Evidence of these practices spans from the time of Neanderthals to the early modern era. For instance, funerary cannibalism, exemplified by the Magdalenian culture approximately 15,000 years ago in northwest Europe, involved the consumption of deceased individuals as an integral aspect of their cultural rites. In contrast, survival cannibalism arose in dire circumstances, particularly during sieges when food scarcity forced individuals to resort to extreme measures for survival. Furthermore, the early modern period saw the prevalence of medicinal cannibalism, where human blood, brains, and even mummified remains were utilized in various healing practices, reflecting a deeply ingrained belief in the therapeutic properties of human remains.

  

European Eyewitness Accounts of Cannibalism

European accounts of cannibalism are marked by a range of documented instances that highlight the grim realities of human behavior in extreme circumstances. Notable among these is Hans Staden's detailed observations of the Tupinambá people's rituals in Brazil, where he described their practices involving the consumption of human flesh. Additionally, during the First Crusade, reports emerged of soldiers in Ma'arra resorting to cannibalism, consuming the bodies of local Muslims as a desperate act amidst the horrors of war. Furthermore, testimonies from Holocaust survivors have drawn chilling parallels between the atrocities they witnessed in concentration camps and fictional depictions of cannibalism, using these comparisons to articulate the profound dehumanization experienced during that dark period. These accounts range from direct, first-hand observations to indirect reports and thematic reflections, all serving to illustrate the extreme violence and the disintegration of societal norms that can occur in times of crisis.

 

Psychological Explanations for Cannibalism

Psychological interpretations of cannibalism are diverse and complex, encompassing a range of mental health issues. Severe mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, may lead individuals to engage in cannibalistic acts as a misguided form of self-defense or survival during psychotic episodes. Additionally, personality disorders characterized by psychopathic or sadistic traits can drive individuals to commit such acts, often stemming from deep-seated feelings of ego-frustration and a compulsive need for dominance over others. It is crucial to recognize that cannibalism is not exclusively linked to mental illness; it can also emerge from various psychological factors, including traumatic experiences, cultural rituals, or primal survival instincts in life-threatening situations.

In extreme cases, individuals suffering from delusions or paranoia may resort to cannibalism as a perceived means of self-preservation, believing that assimilating another person is essential for their own survival. Furthermore, those with mixed personality disorders, particularly those exhibiting psychopathic and sadistic characteristics, may find themselves drawn to cannibalism as a way to alleviate profound narcissistic frustrations and fulfill their ego-driven desires. Additionally, certain extreme forms of paraphilia have been connected to pathological cannibalism, where the act serves a specific sexual or psychological function, although it is important to note that such fantasies are often more prevalent than actual instances of consumption. A comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach is essential to unravel the intricate motivations and circumstances surrounding this disturbing behavior.

Cannibal Island:

This title alludes to the historical moniker attributed to Fiji, and it is also the name of a documentary film from 1931 that delves into the practice of headhunting, often referred to as Cannibal Island. The film, titled Gow the Headhunter, was produced in 1927 by Captain Edward A. Salisbury, with cinematography by Ernest B. Schoedsack and M. A. W. Morian. It provides an in-depth examination of the tribal customs, dances, and warfare associated with headhunting in the Western Pacific, focusing particularly on the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides. The documentary juxtaposes the indigenous practices of these communities with the encroaching influences of European civilization in Fiji. The narrative loosely follows the journey of the headhunters as they engage in warfare and return with new "trophies," and it has been recognized as a pivotal work that shaped the genre of adventure films that followed.

The “man–eating” Myth

The concept of the "man-eating myth" in Europe primarily highlights the tendency of Europeans to depict certain groups as "savage" or "barbaric" cannibals, particularly during the era of colonial expansion. This notion is thoroughly examined in William Arens's seminal work, The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy, published in 1979. However, it is crucial to recognize that European culture itself harbored a historical, though often concealed, practice of medical cannibalism. This involved the consumption of human remains, such as mummies, under the belief that they possessed medicinal properties. The use of human fat, blood, and bones in various remedies underscores a complex and often contradictory relationship with cannibalism within European society, revealing a duality where the same culture that condemned cannibalism in others simultaneously engaged in its practice for purported health benefits.

  

The Death of Captain Cook and Dispelling False Claims of Cannibalism

Captain James Cook met his demise on February 14, 1779, in Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii, during a violent encounter with the native Hawaiian population, known as Kānaka Maoli. This tragic event unfolded during his third voyage across the Pacific, following a series of escalating tensions between Cook and the locals, which were exacerbated by the theft of one of his ship's small boats.

 In the course of this confrontation, Cook was fatally wounded; he was struck by a spear and subsequently clubbed to death by a group of villagers after he had shot one of their own. Contrary to popular belief, Captain Cook was not subjected to cannibalism. The misconception arises from a misunderstanding of the Hawaiians' ritualistic practices, which involved cooking his body to facilitate the removal of his bones, rather than for consumption. This myth has often been perpetuated as a form of European propaganda, aimed at depicting the indigenous islanders as barbaric and savage, thereby justifying colonial attitudes and actions during that era.

Captain James Cook was renowned for his disciplined approach to sailing and his scholarly pursuits, which significantly advanced the field of cartography and facilitated naval exploration. His contributions were particularly notable in the fight against scurvy, a disease that had claimed the lives of many sailors during long voyages. Cook was distinguished by his commitment to diplomacy; he engaged with indigenous populations through respectful communication rather than resorting to violence, instructing his crew to avoid aggressive actions as much as possible. However, the latter part of his legacy became marred by the actions of British soldiers who perpetrated colonial violence in Australia after his time. Ironically, Cook himself did not witness these events, as he was killed in 1779. In 2018, a wave of protests erupted in Australia, challenging Cook's legacy and leading to the vandalism of his statues, reflecting a growing recognition of the darker aspects of colonial history and the impact of European expansion on indigenous communities.

 

Cannibals in Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe

The portrayal of cannibals in Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" serves as a literary construct rather than a reflection of actual historical events. Although the narrative draws inspiration from the genuine experiences of Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk, the cannibals that Crusoe encounters are fictional devices designed to delve into complex themes such as civilization, authority, and the concept of the 'other.' As Crusoe teaches Friday his language, he also attempts to alter Friday's dietary practices, imposing his own European values and customs upon the land, which he regards as his personal domain. This dynamic between Crusoe and Friday, whom he names and seeks to convert, further illustrates the colonial mindset prevalent during the period, highlighting the prevailing attitudes towards empire and cultural dominance. "Robinson Crusoe" is frequently interpreted as a text that endorses colonialism and slavery, mirroring the 18th-century European perspective that rationalized the subjugation of foreign territories and the enslavement of indigenous populations.

Edward Said's concept of Orientalism

Edward Said's notion of Orientalism articulates a framework through which the West has historically represented and exerted power over the "Orient," primarily encompassing regions such as the Middle East and Asia. This framework constructs the East as an exotic, primitive, and inferior counterpart to the rational and superior West, or "Occident." Over the centuries, this discourse has served to legitimize colonial domination by depicting Eastern societies as in dire need of Western intervention and modernization. Edward Said contended that 'Orientalism' is fundamentally a European invention, a conceptual tool employed to portray and control the East, with academic studies in Orientalism playing a pivotal role in this narrative. Rather than being a mere scholarly endeavor, Orientalism functions as a cultural and political instrument deeply ingrained in Western institutions, academic discourse, and popular media, thereby perpetuating stereotypes and power disparities that reinforce Western hegemony.

   

Cannibalism: A Colonial Propaganda?

Reports of cannibalism were strategically employed as colonial propaganda to dehumanize Indigenous populations and rationalize European conquest and settlement. While instances of actual cannibalism did occur, such as the survival cannibalism witnessed during the "Starving Time" at the Jamestown settlement, the broader narrative surrounding cannibalism served to portray Indigenous societies as savage and morally depraved. This portrayal effectively legitimized the dispossession and exploitation of these communities. Despite the historical use of cannibalism as a means to dehumanize colonized peoples, some anthropologists challenge the notion that it was a culturally accepted practice. In his influential work, The Man-Eating Myth, William Arens contends that while survival cannibalism may happen in dire circumstances, there is a lack of substantial evidence supporting the existence of cannibalism as a socially sanctioned custom. Colonizers utilized propaganda to advance their political objectives by disseminating biased information that shaped public perception and justified their actions through various media, including postage stamps, films, newspapers, and photographs. These strategies were designed to legitimize colonial rule, encourage military recruitment, foster nationalism, and promote the colonizers' culture and resources, all while reinforcing negative stereotypes and asserting the supposed superiority of their society.

Justification of Colonial Violence

Colonial violence encompasses the extensive and systematic application of both physical and psychological force by colonizing entities to assert dominance, maintain control, and govern colonized populations and territories. This brutality was frequently rationalized through ideologies that promoted notions of racial and cultural superiority, which served to legitimize the subjugation, exploitation, and so-called "civilizing" missions directed at indigenous peoples. The methods employed were often horrific, including torture, mass executions, collective reprisals, and psychological humiliation, all of which left enduring scars on the affected communities and their social structures. Justifications for such violence were rooted in a belief in racial hierarchies, where colonizers viewed themselves as bearers of civilization tasked with the control and punishment of "inferior" races, whom they believed required strict discipline and guidance. This dehumanization was compounded by the colonizers' perceived entitlement to exploit both the resources and labor of the colonized for economic benefit, fostering an environment where extreme violence, systemic exploitation, and the dismantling of existing societies became normalized and rationalized. Furthermore, these actions contributed to the propagation of pseudo-scientific theories that established a hierarchy of life, positioning European civilization at the pinnacle, thereby reinforcing the moral and ethical justifications for colonial domination.

  

Cannibalism – Projection of the Other

The term "projection of the other" typically describes a psychological mechanism in which individuals unconsciously assign their own unacceptable thoughts, emotions, or motivations to someone else. This process serves as a defense mechanism, enabling individuals to evade the uncomfortable task of acknowledging these traits within themselves. In this framework, Obeyesekere posits that the concept of cannibalism should be interpreted as a manifestation of European projection onto other cultures. While some critics contend that denying the existence of cannibalism equates to a denial of the Holocaust, Obeyesekere argues that the phenomenon of cannibalism did not reach the catastrophic scale of genocide witnessed during the Holocaust. This distinction is crucial, as it underscores the complexities of cultural perceptions and the historical contexts in which these narratives are situated.

 

Hannibal Lecter—The Evil Other

The character of Hannibal Lecter first emerged in the literary world through Thomas Harris's 1981 novel, "Red Dragon." This groundbreaking work not only introduced readers to Lecter's intricate and unsettling nature but also set the stage for his subsequent appearances in literature and film. Given the significant influence of Harris's writing, it is reasonable to speculate that Obeyesekere, as a contemporary figure, may have encountered this notorious cannibalistic character, whose chilling persona continues to resonate with audiences and inspire discussions about morality, psychology, and the darker aspects of human nature.

Hannibal Lecter embodies the archetype of the Eastern European antagonist, representing a sinister and enigmatic figure that stands in stark contrast to the values and norms of the Western world. This duality serves to highlight the perceived moral and ethical boundaries that separate the East from the West, with Lecter’s actions and motivations challenging the very foundations of Western civilization.

Hannibal Lecter is a multifaceted character whose portrayal in Western media complicates the narrative surrounding Eastern European representation. He challenges conventional stereotypes by embodying traits such as culture, intelligence, and sophistication, all while simultaneously being depicted as a monstrous serial killer with an ambiguous, unspecified Eastern European heritage. This duality is further explored through his aristocratic lineage and the traumatic experiences of his childhood, which provide context for his complex personality. However, Lecter also serves as a lens through which the West often projects its concept of the "evil Other," utilizing Eastern Europe as a backdrop for horror narratives.

 

Concluding Thoughts

Obeyesekere highlights the detrimental propaganda propagated by colonial powers against non-European populations, which often bore little resemblance to reality. Within a Eurocentric framework, narratives surrounding colonizers were depicted as both tragic and sensational. The prevailing mission assigned to European colonizers was to "civilize" what they deemed to be savage societies.

This notion was notably encapsulated in Rudyard Kipling's poetry, which suggested that Western nations bore a moral obligation to impose their culture and governance on non-white, non-Western peoples through colonization. Such justifications for colonialism have faced significant criticism for their paternalistic undertones and the underlying assumption of Western racial superiority.

The portrayal of the South Seas as a realm of "Man-Eating Myths" by Western narratives often oversimplifies and distorts the intricate realities of these societies. Such negative stereotypes fail to capture the rich cultural identity and diverse traditions that characterize the region. It is crucial to approach the cultural heritage of these regions with a more nuanced and respectful perspective. 

It is important to clarify that Obeyesekere did not possess any anti-Western feelings or attitudes. His work and perspectives reflect a nuanced understanding of cultural interactions rather than a rejection of Western influence. Instead of harboring resentment, he engaged critically with Western narratives, seeking to explore and articulate the complexities of cultural identity and colonial history. His work critically examines the racial hierarchies, pseudo-scientific ideologies, cultural assimilation, and the erosion of indigenous knowledge, alongside the legal and economic exploitation that characterized the colonial period.