Revisiting Gananath Obeyesekere’s The Doomed King: A Requiem for Sri Vikrama Rajasinha

 

 

 

Dr. Ruwan M. Jayatunge M.D. PhD 

Sri Lankan anthropologist Professor Gananath Obeyesekere’s book The Doomed King: A Requiem for Sri Vikrama Rajasinha delves into the life of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last king of Sri Lanka, and critically analyzes his legacy.

The historical portrayal of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha often paints him as a tyrant, a perception that has lingered in the minds of many people. Feelings of anger and aversion towards Sri Vikrama Rajasinha continue to exist, and they are deeply rooted in the shared historical experiences in the collective unconscious of many Sri Lankans.

However, Professor Gananath seeks to challenge these long-held beliefs. While the narrative has often characterized him as a cruel dictator responsible for numerous atrocities, including acts of violence against innocents, these accounts may not tell the full story. According to Professor Gananath, the image we have of him is a distorted one, shaped by the psychological operations and propaganda that were used by the British invaders. By examining a variety of historical evidence, Gananath aims to uncover the real Sri Vikrama Rajasinha and shed light on his true character.

Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, also known as Prince Kannasamy, was born in 1780. There are intriguing tales surrounding his origins, suggesting that he was the son of a widowed Nayakkar Rajamaheshika's sister and Pilimatalavuva, a chieftain from the Kandyan kingdom.

Pilimatalavuva Maha Adikaram wielded a significant influence and played a crucial role in securing and bringing Prince Kannasamy to the throne. By 1798, at just sixteen years of age, he found himself ruling over the Kandyan kingdom, with Pilimatalavuva by his side, guiding his decisions. However, Pilimatalavuva had ulterior motives. Pilimatalavuva aimed to first place Kannasamy in power, only to later oust him, ultimately paving the way for the establishment of a Sinhala royal dynasty.

Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's reign lasted only 17 years. When the British captured him, he was a striking young man of 35, standing approximately six feet tall. Descriptions from English physician Henry Marshall highlight his large, dark eyes, an inviting countenance, and a well-groomed beard that lent him a commanding presence. His robust build added to his notable appearance.

Professor Gananath indicates several of his significant accomplishments. King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha is credited with the creation of the artificial Kandy Lake, alongside the renowned Cloud Wall (Walakulu Bamma). He also made significant modifications to the Royal Palace complex, which stands at the center of the city. His remarkable impact on the development and architectural allure of Kandy has largely been overlooked by history. At the heart of this vibrant "cosmic city," he ingeniously designed the temple complex and lake, forming a captivating centerpiece.

British captain Robert Percival reflects on King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha as a lover of music, endowed with gentle qualities. To understand him better, we should consider the reigns of the kings before him.

King Seethawaka Rajasinghe (1532 – 1593) was a fierce warrior who brought fear into the hearts of Portuguese invaders. However, in the latter stages, he showed signs of psychological distress, possibly stemming from combat fatigue (PTSD?). His paranoia led him to execute many of his generals and nobles out of sheer suspicion.

Then there was King Rajasinghe II (1608 – 1687). English prisoner Robert Knox offers a glimpse into the king's unpredictable and harsh laws. A notable incident recounts how, while swimming in a river, the king feigned drowning to test the loyalty of two young men. When they courageously swam to his rescue, their reward was a tragic fate—execution for having touched the royal body. This serves as a stark reminder of the unpredictable cruelty that defined his reign.  There is no historical documentation to indicate that King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha acted in such a thoughtless manner.

Professor Gananath indicates the misconceptions surrounding the last king, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. Some British diplomats unfairly characterized him as lacking intelligence and bravery, with reports suggesting he struggled with alcoholism. However, the reality was quite different. Those British envoys who interacted with him later came to recognize that Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was not only intelligent and spiritual but also a man of substance. He was well-educated and often engaged in meditation to find peace and clarity.

  

Pilimatalavuva Maha Adikaram’s Role

There’s not a great deal of detail in our history books regarding Pilimatalavuva Adhikaram. It appears that he was quite the strategist, adept at navigating the political landscape. He played a significant role in elevating Sri Vikrama Rajasinha to the throne, though it seems he had his own motives at heart, potentially aiming to usurp the throne for himself at some point.

Pilimatalavuva Maha Adikaram was the third son in a lineage of Kandyan chieftains, tracing its roots back to a distinguished family that served the Sinhalese kings since ancient times. This lineage was further enriched through the integration with South Indian nobility who came to the Kandyan Kingdom during the rule of Sri Vira Parkrama Narendrasinha of Kundasale.

His full name was Pilimatalavuva Vijesundera Rajakaruna Senaviratne Abhayakoon Panditha Mudiyanse, also known as Urulevatta Agra Senadhipathi and Arave Pallegampaha Maha Adikaram III. Both his father and older brother held the title of Maha Adikaram before him.

His dealings with the British were particularly intriguing; he didn’t just collaborate with them but also orchestrated their movements, inviting British forces into the central region, possibly to exploit their weaknesses. Throughout this, he maintained a delicate balance with Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, who relied on him emotionally.

Pilimatalavuva Adhikaram masterfully portrayed himself as an ally to the British, showcasing a level of prudence that outshone Keppetipola Disawe, who relied more on bravery than strategy. In a time marked by internal strife and external threats, Pilimatalavuva Adhikaram navigated his situation with great care over an extended period. He planned to bring the English army into the heart of the country and then annihilate the troops. However, Frederick North, the Governor of British Ceylon, found Pilimatalavuva's maneuvers questionable and responded with caution. A single miscalculation ultimately led to his undoing, sealing his tragic fate. It's fascinating to consider him as the ancient Sri Lankan equivalent of Robert McNamara.

 

1803; The First Kandyan War

The British invasion of Ceylon in 1803, referred to as the First Kandyan War, marked an unsuccessful effort by Governor Frederick North to subjugate the independent Kingdom of Kandy. Colonel James Stuart commanded around 2,700 troops, which included British regiments (71st, 72nd, and 73rd), Madras Native Infantry, and artillery, alongside auxiliary forces. This contingent was part of a larger British military presence on the island, totaling between 4,000 and 5,000 personnel, including local Malay and Sepoy infantry.

The campaign resulted in a staggering loss of life, with 1,091 British soldiers perishing from January to June, leading some accounts to characterize the conflict as a massacre inflicted by the Kandyan forces. The British army, consisting of 3,387 soldiers from seven regiments, faced severe casualties due to both disease and combat, culminating in a significant defeat in the island's interior. Their underestimation of Kandyan resistance, combined with unfamiliarity with the terrain and the challenges posed by guerrilla warfare, contributed to this disastrous outcome.

  

Frederick North’s Clandestine Services to the Islanders

Frederick North, 5th Earl of Guilford, was the Governor of British Ceylon from 1798 to 1805. Surprisingly, the important role he played during his tenure isn’t mentioned in our history lessons. North was the pioneer of the civil service in Ceylon and dedicated much of his efforts to improving education. He also initiated the vaccination campaign against smallpox, a disease that claimed the lives of tens of thousands of Sri Lankans each year. (As someone who served as an MOH, I wasn't even aware of his contributions to public health in Sri Lanka.) In addition to these reforms, he established both domestic and foreign postal services and worked to abolish the "Rajakai system," which had allowed officials to exploit ordinary villagers without consequence. Thanks to North’s educational reforms, in 1811, Mudali Abraham de Seram's two sons became the first Sri Lankans to study abroad, attending Trinity Hall in England. Mudali Abraham de Seram is noteworthy himself; he famously read the Kandyan Agreement in Sinhala at Magul Maduwa in 1815, indicating his role as a language translator.

However, towards the end of his term, North faced significant work-related stress, which may have led to adjustment disorder, prompting his return to England. Following his departure, Thomas Maitland took over from 1805 until March 19, 1811.

 

The Murder of Lewke Disawa

The Lewke family held a prominent position in society during the Kandyan period, forging strong ties with the ruling dynasties of the time. Legend has it that this family traced its origins back to Brahmins who arrived on the island during the reign of King Vijayabahu I in the 11th century.

Among them, Lewke Disawa stood out not only for his impressive physique but also as a formidable wrestler and a respected military commander under King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. The circumstances surrounding Lewke Disawa’s death remain somewhat murky.

In September 1803, as the Sinhalese army prepared to assault the English fort at Hanwella, he expressed confidence to King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, suggesting that taking the fort would be straightforward. However, during the course of the battle, a rumor reached the king that Lewke was idling in a paddy field instead of participating in the decisive battle. Fueled by distrust, exacerbated by the schemes of those around the court, the king perceived Lewke's actions as a lack of commitment. In a moment of misjudgment, he ordered Lewke's execution.

Notably, Gananatha hints at a deeper narrative behind this tragic event, suggesting possible secret dealings between Lewke and the British, indicating that his actions may have been more than simple insubordination. Rather, it seems there might have been layers of intrigue and betrayal at play in the unfolding of these events. Although the historical record does not show that Lewke Dissawa had secret dealings with the British. But he was suspected of attempting to assassinate the king. It can be assumed that the king ordered his execution for these reasons.

The Brutal Murder of the Entire Ehelepola Family

The Ehelepola family met a tragic fate in 1814, as they were executed on the orders of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, following the betrayal of his chief, Ehelepola Adikaram. The king ordered the drowning of his wife, daughters, and sister-in-law in Kandy Lake, while his infant son was killed in a rice pounder. King Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe ordered Ehelepola Kumarihamy to kill her infant by pounding its head with a pestle.This atrocity sparked widespread outrage among the populace and significantly contributed to the king's eventual downfall.

Ganatha argues that the killings of the Ehelepola family were not as savage as historical accounts suggest, claiming that these events have been exaggerated as part of a British psychological warfare against the doomed king. He posits that John Doyley played a crucial role as a spy, spreading rumors and effectively securing the support of the local populace for the British invasion of Kandy. Furthermore, reports from Gregory Powell’s book, The Kandyan Wars: The British Army in Ceylon, 1803–1818, indicate that the practice of infanticide, killing an infant by pounding its head with a pestle, was not initiated by Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe. According to him, the Dutch had adopted this inhumane method way before Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe. During a Dutch assault on a Portuguese fort, a Portuguese woman was compelled to kill her baby, pounding the infant with a pestle before being sent back to the fort. Professor Ganatha speculates that Portuguese General Acevedo also adopted these inhumane methods.

The question arises whether the king derived a sadistic pleasure from the brutality inflicted upon the Ehelepola family, including small children. Professor Ganatha argues against the notion that Ehelepola's family endured inhumane torture. He clarifies that while Ehelepola's wife and children were executed in accordance with existing royal law, the process was not carried out cruelly or theatrically, as history shows.  It was Jan Egberts Thoen, a Dutch soldier, who concocted this alarming tale, which John D'Oyly subsequently reported to his superiors.

 

The Plight of Ehelepola Nilame

Ehelepola Nilame emerged as a contentious figure during the final years of the Kandy Kingdom, with some historians accusing him of betraying Sri Lanka to the British. Born in Ehelepola village in the Matale district in 1773, he was the son of Padikara Nilame and Kossinne Kumarihamy. Ehelepola married Monarawila Kumarihamy, the sister of Keppetipola's Disawa, who later led the Uva Rebellion in 1818.

Appointed by King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha to govern the Sabaragamuwa region, Ehelepola's transfer was shrouded in speculation, with a popular but unfounded legend suggesting it was due to the king's infatuation with Ehelepola's wife. (This may not be true, and this rumor was fabricated to tarnish the king’s image.)

During his tenure, Ehelepola engaged in negotiations with the British to protect the Kanda Udarata kingdom from the Nayakkar clan, forming a friendship with John D'Oyly’s informant, Wattala Appu, in 1811. However, tensions escalated as Molligoda Nilame fed the king with information that sowed discord between Ehelepola and Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. Ultimately, Ehelepola harbored ambitions of usurping the throne with British military support, prompting General Sir Robert Brownrigg to monitor him closely.

In 1814, Ehelepola initiated a rebellion against the king, expecting British assistance that never materialized, leading to the uprising's brutal suppression and his subsequent flight to British-controlled territory, where he sought protection. 

General Robert Brownrigg relied on Ehelepola to help him subdue the Kandyan kingdom, yet Ehelepola's aspirations of kingship ultimately ended in disappointment. Over time, he became a liability for the British authorities, facing ongoing distrust. Following the uprising of 1818, Ehelepola was exiled to Mauritius, where he passed away in 1829 while still in exile.

 

John D'Oyly—the British Spy

Professor Gananath Obeyesekere highlights the significant role of John D'Oyly, a skilled spy and master manipulator who adeptly learned the Sinhala language and immersed himself in the local culture. This strategic masquerade allowed him to win the trust of the native population. D'Oyly established a network of informants, including merchants and Buddhist monks, who provided crucial intelligence about the Kandyan kingdom. For instance, the Buddhist monks such as Rev. Ahugoda, Rev. Godamunna, Rev. Hurukgamuwa, and Rev. Koskandawala were John D'Oyly’s informants.

Recognized as an exceptionally talented British spy, he understood the immense value of information and employed psychological tactics to sway public opinion against the king. His efforts were instrumental in laying the groundwork for the British invasion of Kandyan territory, especially after the disastrous defeat of British forces in 1803 during the First Kandyan Expedition.

This campaign, which initially saw the capture of Kandy, ultimately resulted in a retreat marked by guerrilla warfare that decimated British troops. D'Oyly believed that the conquest of the Kandyan kingdom could be achieved through intellect rather than brute force, a strategy that ultimately succeeded where the Portuguese and Dutch had failed. Following the British victory, D'Oyly was appointed as the Resident and First Commissioner of Government in the Kandyan Provinces. While Gregory Powell's book, "The Kandyan Wars: The British Army in Ceylon, 1803–1818," suggests that D'Oyly's death was a suicide, many historians contest this claim, asserting that he succumbed to a remittent fever during an official tour in the Seven Korles in May 1824.

 

Molligoda Disawa ; the shrewd Operator

Molligoda Disawa entered the court of King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha in 1803, quickly establishing himself as a cunning strategist who gained the king's confidence. He played a pivotal role in sowing discord between Sri Vikrama Rajasinha and Ehelepola Nilame. Often described as vindictive and conniving, Molligoda was seen by Professor Gananath as a clever figure who navigated treacherous waters with skill. In a fateful turn, he aligned himself with the British forces, choosing to forsake his king. Prior to this bold decision, he ensured the safety of his wife and children by sending them to the British side, aided by Major Hook of the British Army.  Ehelepola Nilame put his wife and children's lives at risk by aligning himself with the British. In contrast, the clever Molligoda took decisive action to protect his family from danger. Molligoda remained loyal to the British, even supporting them during the uprising of 1818. However, as time passed, he grew increasingly isolated and fell into alcoholism. Molligoda Disawa passed away in 1823.

  

Rev Wariyapola Sri Sumangala’s Heroic Act

The popular narrative in Sri Lankan history portrays Wariyapola Sri Sumangala as a heroic Buddhist monk who boldly removed the Union Jack and raised the Sinhalese lion flag prior to the 1815 Kandyan Convention. However, Ganatha challenges this account, suggesting that it was a fabrication. This revelation might provoke disillusionment and anger among nationalists. It is crucial to prioritize historical accuracy over the perpetuation of myths, as this incident appears to be an exaggeration that never actually took place. The convention was heavily secured, preventing any unauthorized access, and official reports do not document any such disturbances. In his book, The Kandyan Wars: The British Army in Ceylon, 1803-1818, Gregory Powell provides a detailed account of the Kandyan Convention without mentioning this event, further supporting the notion that the story is a fictional tale that has spread through oral tradition.

  

1818 Uva–Wellassa Rebellion

 The Uva-Wellassa Rebellion of 1818 was sparked by the British violation of the Kandyan Convention, a disregard that ignored the region's traditions, disrespected the rights of Kandyan chiefs, and imposed harsh rule on the Kandyan people. Growing frustration with British governance led to a significant uprising, led by notable figures such as Monarawila Keppetipola Nilame, Madugalle Basnayake Nilame, and Ellepolla Nilame, all of whom were eager to reclaim the Kandyan Kingdom.

Despite the rebels' determination, the uprising was ultimately crushed by the British, who possessed far greater military strength. A lack of cohesive leadership among the insurgents further weakened their resistance. The British employed severe tactics, including a scorched-earth policy that devastated resources and created an atmosphere of terror among the local populace.

Major MacDonald of the British Army engaged in retaliatory actions by setting fire to homes, destroying crops, and slaughtering livestock. Collaborators faced execution, while others were forced into exile. Even family members were not spared, being taken as prisoners. (Decades later, in 1864-1865, US Army General William T. Sherman adopted a scorched-earth strategy during his March to the Sea, aiming to dismantle the Confederacy’s will and resources for continuing the war).

Some Kandyan chieftains, like Molligoda Maha Adikaram and Ratwatte Adikaram, sided with the British, while loyalty from other chiefs in areas like Tun Korele and Hathara Korele helped the colonial powers suppress further rebellions. Historical accounts indicate that the British resorted to brutal measures to extinguish the revolt, implementing collective punishments, destroying property, and executing key rebel leaders. Ultimately, the rebellion failed due to internal discord and inadequate planning within the ranks of the insurgents.

 

The Doomed King

Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe, the final monarch of the Kandy Nayak Dynasty of Telugu descent, reigned from 1739 until 1815. During his rule, some contemporary writers labeled him a Tamil king, a politically motivated tactic aimed at undermining his popularity among the populace. Despite these challenges, he was known for his contributions to architecture and his support of Buddhism, notably completing the Dalada Maligawa complex with the addition of the Pattirippuva. Following the British conquest, he was exiled to Vellore Fort in India, where he remained until his death in 1832.

There is a plausible theory suggesting that the British covertly administered small doses of arsenic to Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe to expedite his demise. This practice was not isolated, as reports indicate that Sinhala rebels in exile also received arsenic, leading to symptoms such as stomach issues, including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea with dyspnea and swollen feet before their deaths. Notably, Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe experienced similar symptoms in his final days. This method of poisoning was also employed against Napoleon, who succumbed to comparable health problems, with arsenic later detected in his hair. During his exile, the king fathered a son, Rajadhi Rajasinha, who died of unknown causes in exile in Vellore Fort, India, in 1843. The death of Rajadhi Rajasinha has intensified suspicions regarding the circumstances surrounding these events.