Gananath Obeyesekere, Emeritus Professor of
Anthropology at Princeton University, critically examines the Western European
narrative surrounding cannibalism in his 2005 work, Cannibal Talk: The
Man-Eating Myth and Human Sacrifice in the South Seas. Obeyesekere challenges the entrenched narrative that
portrays the white man as a civilizing force in the world. Through a critical
analysis of Captain Cook's voyages and the subsequent mythologizing of his
figure, Obeyesekere deconstructs the romanticized view of European explorers as
benevolent agents of progress. He
contends that the mythologized portrayal of cannibalism serves as a reflection
of European societies' own obsessions and has been used to rationalize acts of
colonial violence. Through a thorough analysis of early European eyewitness
accounts, Obeyesekere argues that these narratives were largely fabrications by
Western sailors, lacking an accurate representation of the realities they
purported to describe. He emphasizes that the claims of cannibalism are often
devoid of empirical support, revealing the constructed nature of these myths.
A Cannibal
A cannibal refers to an organism, including
humans, that consumes the flesh of others within the same species. The term was
popularized by Christopher Columbus after European explorers arrived in the
Americas, where it was employed by colonizers as a means to facilitate their
expansionist agendas. By branding non-Western individuals as
"savages" or "cannibals," colonizers sought to depict them
as uncivilized and morally inferior, thereby justifying their own violent
actions and the imposition of European values. This labeling served to
rationalize the brutalities of slavery, conquest, and colonization, framing
these acts as a form of bringing civilization to what they perceived as a
primitive and perilous world.
Cannibalism
Cannibalism refers to the practice of one
organism consuming another individual of the same species, a phenomenon that
can be observed across various animal groups and has also been documented in
human history, where it is specifically termed "anthropophagy." The
motivations behind this behavior are diverse, ranging from survival instincts
triggered by environmental pressures such as scarcity of food or conflict to
more intricate cultural, religious, or ritualistic reasons, including spiritual
beliefs or the desire to gain the strength of a defeated adversary. In the
animal kingdom, cannibalism may serve as a natural adaptive response to
challenging ecological conditions, whereas in humans, it has manifested in
numerous forms and contexts throughout different cultures and eras, despite
being largely regarded as taboo in many contemporary societies.
Exo-Cannibalism and Endo-Cannibalism
Exocannibalism refers to the act of consuming
the flesh of individuals who belong to different social groups, typically those
perceived as enemies or outsiders. This practice is often employed as a means
of asserting dominance and inflicting humiliation during conflicts, serving not
only as a method of revenge but also as a way to symbolically absorb the
attributes of the vanquished.
In contrast, endocannibalism involves the
consumption of human flesh from within one’s own community, frequently observed
in funerary rituals, such as those practiced by the Fore people of Papua New
Guinea. This form of cannibalism is often imbued with deep emotional
significance, acting as a gesture of love, a means of mourning, or a way to
assist the deceased in their journey to the afterlife. However, it is important
to note that such practices can also pose health risks.
The examination of both exocannibalism and
endocannibalism offers valuable insights into diverse cultural practices and
their motivations, which can range from a profound respect for the deceased to
expressions of aggression and territoriality. By studying these forms of
cannibalism, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of various cultural
phenomena, including the processes of grief, beliefs surrounding life after
death, the social dynamics of identity formation (distinguishing between friend
and foe), and the symbolic implications of consumption within human societies.
Conspicuous Anthropophagy
Obeyesekere acknowledges that certain
indigenous cultures, such as the Maori of New Zealand and various tribes in
South America, engaged in the practice of conspicuous anthropophagy. This
ritualistic consumption of human flesh was often rooted in warrior traditions,
serving purposes such as the absorption of an enemy's strength, the expression
of respect for the fallen, or the demonstration of power and dominance.
Additionally, the concept of anthropophagy extends into the realm of cultural
consumption, where foreign elements are symbolically "ingested" and assimilated
into a culture. It is important to recognize that every culture harbors its own
xenophobic tendencies, which can be attributed to a complex interplay of
evolutionary, personal, and environmental influences. These factors contribute
to the phenomenon of xenophobia, which is often deeply embedded in the
collective unconscious of societies, shaping attitudes and behaviors toward the
unfamiliar and the other.
Cannibalism in Polynesian
Societies
Cannibalism was practiced in certain
Polynesian societies, notably in Fiji and the Marquesas, primarily as a
ritualistic expression of warfare and a demonstration of dominance, rather than
out of necessity for survival. European colonial narratives, however,
frequently exaggerated these instances, framing them as widespread phenomena to
perpetuate stereotypes about indigenous populations and to rationalize their
colonial endeavors. While there is evidence that limited forms of cannibalism
existed, often linked to human sacrifice, these practices were typically
selective and deeply intertwined with intricate religious and political
ceremonies, rather than being a common aspect of daily life. This nuanced
understanding challenges the simplistic and sensationalized portrayals that
have historically overshadowed the rich cultural contexts of these societies.
European Fascination with Cannibalism
The European intrigue with cannibalism was
steeped in a complex web of hypocrisy, where the notion of "savage"
cannibalism served as a convenient justification for colonial expansion. This
perspective allowed colonizers to portray indigenous peoples as barbaric,
thereby legitimizing their own exploitative practices. Paradoxically, Europe
itself engaged in what could be termed "medicinal cannibalism,"
wherein human flesh was consumed under the belief that it possessed curative
properties. A notable example of this was the use of mumia, a substance made
from ground human remains, which was widely regarded as an effective treatment
for a variety of health issues. The portrayal of cannibalism as a marker of
savagery functioned as a powerful rhetorical device, yet it simultaneously
masked the often contradictory and unsettling reality of Europe's own
historical engagement with the consumption of human remains, whether for
medicinal purposes or, in some instances, even for culinary enjoyment.
Cannibalism in Europe
Cannibalism in Europe avows a complex and
multifaceted history, manifesting in various forms such as funerary rituals,
survival strategies during periods of famine, and even medicinal practices.
Evidence of these practices spans from the time of Neanderthals to the early
modern era. For instance, funerary cannibalism, exemplified by the Magdalenian
culture approximately 15,000 years ago in northwest Europe, involved the
consumption of deceased individuals as an integral aspect of their cultural
rites. In contrast, survival cannibalism arose in dire circumstances,
particularly during sieges when food scarcity forced individuals to resort to
extreme measures for survival. Furthermore, the early modern period saw the
prevalence of medicinal cannibalism, where human blood, brains, and even
mummified remains were utilized in various healing practices, reflecting a
deeply ingrained belief in the therapeutic properties of human remains.
European Eyewitness Accounts of Cannibalism
European accounts of cannibalism are marked
by a range of documented instances that highlight the grim realities of human
behavior in extreme circumstances. Notable among these is Hans Staden's
detailed observations of the Tupinambá people's rituals in Brazil, where he
described their practices involving the consumption of human flesh.
Additionally, during the First Crusade, reports emerged of soldiers in Ma'arra
resorting to cannibalism, consuming the bodies of local Muslims as a desperate
act amidst the horrors of war. Furthermore, testimonies from Holocaust
survivors have drawn chilling parallels between the atrocities they witnessed
in concentration camps and fictional depictions of cannibalism, using these
comparisons to articulate the profound dehumanization experienced during that dark
period. These accounts range from direct, first-hand observations to indirect
reports and thematic reflections, all serving to illustrate the extreme
violence and the disintegration of societal norms that can occur in times of
crisis.
Psychological Explanations for Cannibalism
Psychological interpretations of cannibalism
are diverse and complex, encompassing a range of mental health issues. Severe
mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, may lead individuals to engage in
cannibalistic acts as a misguided form of self-defense or survival during
psychotic episodes. Additionally, personality disorders characterized by
psychopathic or sadistic traits can drive individuals to commit such acts,
often stemming from deep-seated feelings of ego-frustration and a compulsive
need for dominance over others. It is crucial to recognize that cannibalism is
not exclusively linked to mental illness; it can also emerge from various
psychological factors, including traumatic experiences, cultural rituals, or
primal survival instincts in life-threatening situations.
In extreme cases, individuals suffering from
delusions or paranoia may resort to cannibalism as a perceived means of
self-preservation, believing that assimilating another person is essential for
their own survival. Furthermore, those with mixed personality disorders,
particularly those exhibiting psychopathic and sadistic characteristics, may
find themselves drawn to cannibalism as a way to alleviate profound
narcissistic frustrations and fulfill their ego-driven desires. Additionally,
certain extreme forms of paraphilia have been connected to pathological
cannibalism, where the act serves a specific sexual or psychological function,
although it is important to note that such fantasies are often more prevalent than
actual instances of consumption. A comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach is
essential to unravel the intricate motivations and circumstances surrounding
this disturbing behavior.
Cannibal Island:
This title alludes to the historical moniker
attributed to Fiji, and it is also the name of a documentary film from 1931
that delves into the practice of headhunting, often referred to as Cannibal
Island. The film, titled Gow the Headhunter, was produced in 1927 by Captain
Edward A. Salisbury, with cinematography by Ernest B. Schoedsack and M. A. W.
Morian. It provides an in-depth examination of the tribal customs, dances, and
warfare associated with headhunting in the Western Pacific, focusing
particularly on the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides. The documentary
juxtaposes the indigenous practices of these communities with the encroaching
influences of European civilization in Fiji. The narrative loosely follows the
journey of the headhunters as they engage in warfare and return with new
"trophies," and it has been recognized as a pivotal work that shaped
the genre of adventure films that followed.
The “man–eating” Myth
The concept of the "man-eating
myth" in Europe primarily highlights the tendency of Europeans to depict
certain groups as "savage" or "barbaric" cannibals,
particularly during the era of colonial expansion. This notion is thoroughly
examined in William Arens's seminal work, The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and
Anthropophagy, published in 1979. However, it is crucial to recognize that European
culture itself harbored a historical, though often concealed, practice of
medical cannibalism. This involved the consumption of human remains, such as
mummies, under the belief that they possessed medicinal properties. The use of
human fat, blood, and bones in various remedies underscores a complex and often
contradictory relationship with cannibalism within European society, revealing
a duality where the same culture that condemned cannibalism in others
simultaneously engaged in its practice for purported health benefits.
The Death of Captain Cook
and Dispelling False Claims of Cannibalism
Captain James Cook met his demise on February
14, 1779, in Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii, during a violent encounter with the native
Hawaiian population, known as Kānaka Maoli. This tragic event unfolded during
his third voyage across the Pacific, following a series of escalating tensions
between Cook and the locals, which were exacerbated by the theft of one of his
ship's small boats.
In the
course of this confrontation, Cook was fatally wounded; he was struck by a
spear and subsequently clubbed to death by a group of villagers after he had
shot one of their own. Contrary to popular belief, Captain Cook was not
subjected to cannibalism. The misconception arises from a misunderstanding of
the Hawaiians' ritualistic practices, which involved cooking his body to
facilitate the removal of his bones, rather than for consumption. This myth has
often been perpetuated as a form of European propaganda, aimed at depicting the
indigenous islanders as barbaric and savage, thereby justifying colonial
attitudes and actions during that era.
Captain
James Cook was renowned for his disciplined approach to sailing and his
scholarly pursuits, which significantly advanced the field of cartography and
facilitated naval exploration. His contributions were particularly notable in
the fight against scurvy, a disease that had claimed the lives of many sailors
during long voyages. Cook was distinguished by his commitment to diplomacy; he
engaged with indigenous populations through respectful communication rather
than resorting to violence, instructing his crew to avoid aggressive actions as
much as possible. However, the latter part of his legacy became marred by the
actions of British soldiers who perpetrated colonial violence in Australia
after his time. Ironically, Cook himself did not witness these events, as he
was killed in 1779. In 2018, a wave of protests erupted in Australia,
challenging Cook's legacy and leading to the vandalism of his statues,
reflecting a growing recognition of the darker aspects of colonial history and
the impact of European expansion on indigenous communities.
Cannibals in Daniel Defoe's
Robinson Crusoe
The portrayal of cannibals in Daniel Defoe's
"Robinson Crusoe" serves as a literary construct rather than a
reflection of actual historical events. Although the narrative draws
inspiration from the genuine experiences of Scottish castaway Alexander
Selkirk, the cannibals that Crusoe encounters are fictional devices designed to
delve into complex themes such as civilization, authority, and the concept of
the 'other.' As Crusoe teaches Friday his language, he also attempts to alter
Friday's dietary practices, imposing his own European values and customs upon
the land, which he regards as his personal domain. This dynamic between Crusoe
and Friday, whom he names and seeks to convert, further illustrates the
colonial mindset prevalent during the period, highlighting the prevailing
attitudes towards empire and cultural dominance. "Robinson Crusoe" is
frequently interpreted as a text that endorses colonialism and slavery,
mirroring the 18th-century European perspective that rationalized the
subjugation of foreign territories and the enslavement of indigenous populations.
Edward Said's concept of
Orientalism
Edward Said's notion of Orientalism articulates a framework through which the West has historically represented and exerted power over the "Orient," primarily encompassing regions such as the Middle East and Asia. This framework constructs the East as an exotic, primitive, and inferior counterpart to the rational and superior West, or "Occident." Over the centuries, this discourse has served to legitimize colonial domination by depicting Eastern societies as in dire need of Western intervention and modernization. Edward Said contended that 'Orientalism' is fundamentally a European invention, a conceptual tool employed to portray and control the East, with academic studies in Orientalism playing a pivotal role in this narrative. Rather than being a mere scholarly endeavor, Orientalism functions as a cultural and political instrument deeply ingrained in Western institutions, academic discourse, and popular media, thereby perpetuating stereotypes and power disparities that reinforce Western hegemony.
Cannibalism: A Colonial Propaganda?
Reports of cannibalism were strategically
employed as colonial propaganda to dehumanize Indigenous populations and
rationalize European conquest and settlement. While instances of actual
cannibalism did occur, such as the survival cannibalism witnessed during the
"Starving Time" at the Jamestown settlement, the broader narrative
surrounding cannibalism served to portray Indigenous societies as savage and
morally depraved. This portrayal effectively legitimized the dispossession and
exploitation of these communities. Despite the historical use of cannibalism as
a means to dehumanize colonized peoples, some anthropologists challenge the
notion that it was a culturally accepted practice. In his influential work, The
Man-Eating Myth, William Arens contends that while survival cannibalism may
happen in dire circumstances, there is a lack of substantial evidence
supporting the existence of cannibalism as a socially sanctioned custom.
Colonizers utilized propaganda to advance their political objectives by
disseminating biased information that shaped public perception and justified
their actions through various media, including postage stamps, films,
newspapers, and photographs. These strategies were designed to legitimize
colonial rule, encourage military recruitment, foster nationalism, and promote
the colonizers' culture and resources, all while reinforcing negative
stereotypes and asserting the supposed superiority of their society.
Justification of Colonial
Violence
Colonial violence encompasses the extensive
and systematic application of both physical and psychological force by
colonizing entities to assert dominance, maintain control, and govern colonized
populations and territories. This brutality was frequently rationalized through
ideologies that promoted notions of racial and cultural superiority, which
served to legitimize the subjugation, exploitation, and so-called
"civilizing" missions directed at indigenous peoples. The methods employed
were often horrific, including torture, mass executions, collective reprisals,
and psychological humiliation, all of which left enduring scars on the affected
communities and their social structures. Justifications for such violence were
rooted in a belief in racial hierarchies, where colonizers viewed themselves as
bearers of civilization tasked with the control and punishment of
"inferior" races, whom they believed required strict discipline and
guidance. This dehumanization was compounded by the colonizers' perceived
entitlement to exploit both the resources and labor of the colonized for
economic benefit, fostering an environment where extreme violence, systemic
exploitation, and the dismantling of existing societies became normalized and
rationalized. Furthermore, these actions contributed to the propagation of
pseudo-scientific theories that established a hierarchy of life, positioning
European civilization at the pinnacle, thereby reinforcing the moral and
ethical justifications for colonial domination.
Cannibalism – Projection of
the Other
The term "projection of the other"
typically describes a psychological mechanism in which individuals
unconsciously assign their own unacceptable thoughts, emotions, or motivations
to someone else. This process serves as a defense mechanism, enabling
individuals to evade the uncomfortable task of acknowledging these traits
within themselves. In this framework, Obeyesekere posits that the concept of
cannibalism should be interpreted as a manifestation of European projection
onto other cultures. While some critics contend that denying the existence of
cannibalism equates to a denial of the Holocaust, Obeyesekere argues that the
phenomenon of cannibalism did not reach the catastrophic scale of genocide
witnessed during the Holocaust. This distinction is crucial, as it underscores
the complexities of cultural perceptions and the historical contexts in which
these narratives are situated.
Hannibal Lecter—The Evil Other
The
character of Hannibal Lecter first emerged in the literary world through Thomas
Harris's 1981 novel, "Red Dragon." This groundbreaking work not only
introduced readers to Lecter's intricate and unsettling nature but also set the
stage for his subsequent appearances in literature and film. Given the
significant influence of Harris's writing, it is reasonable to speculate that Obeyesekere,
as a contemporary figure, may have encountered this notorious cannibalistic
character, whose chilling persona continues to resonate with audiences and
inspire discussions about morality, psychology, and the darker aspects of human
nature.
Hannibal
Lecter embodies the archetype of the Eastern European antagonist, representing
a sinister and enigmatic figure that stands in stark contrast to the values and
norms of the Western world. This duality serves to highlight the perceived
moral and ethical boundaries that separate the East from the West, with
Lecter’s actions and motivations challenging the very foundations of Western
civilization.
Hannibal
Lecter is a multifaceted character whose portrayal in Western media complicates
the narrative surrounding Eastern European representation. He challenges
conventional stereotypes by embodying traits such as culture, intelligence, and
sophistication, all while simultaneously being depicted as a monstrous serial
killer with an ambiguous, unspecified Eastern European heritage. This duality
is further explored through his aristocratic lineage and the traumatic
experiences of his childhood, which provide context for his complex
personality. However, Lecter also serves as a lens through which the West often
projects its concept of the "evil Other," utilizing Eastern Europe as
a backdrop for horror narratives.
Concluding Thoughts
Obeyesekere
highlights the detrimental propaganda propagated by colonial powers against
non-European populations, which often bore little resemblance to reality.
Within a Eurocentric framework, narratives surrounding colonizers were depicted
as both tragic and sensational. The prevailing mission assigned to European
colonizers was to "civilize" what they deemed to be savage societies.
This
notion was notably encapsulated in Rudyard Kipling's poetry, which suggested
that Western nations bore a moral obligation to impose their culture and
governance on non-white, non-Western peoples through colonization. Such
justifications for colonialism have faced significant criticism for their
paternalistic undertones and the underlying assumption of Western racial superiority.
The
portrayal of the South Seas as a realm of "Man-Eating Myths" by
Western narratives often oversimplifies and distorts the intricate realities of
these societies. Such negative stereotypes fail to capture the rich cultural identity
and diverse traditions that characterize the region. It is crucial to approach
the cultural heritage of these regions with a more nuanced and respectful
perspective.
It is
important to clarify that Obeyesekere did not possess any anti-Western feelings
or attitudes. His work and perspectives reflect a nuanced understanding of
cultural interactions rather than a rejection of Western influence. Instead of
harboring resentment, he engaged critically with Western narratives, seeking to
explore and articulate the complexities of cultural identity and colonial
history. His work critically examines the racial hierarchies, pseudo-scientific
ideologies, cultural assimilation, and the erosion of indigenous knowledge,
alongside the legal and economic exploitation that characterized the colonial
period.
