Dr. Ruwan M. Jayatunge M.D. PhD
Sri Lankan anthropologist
Professor Gananath Obeyesekere’s book The Doomed King: A Requiem for Sri
Vikrama Rajasinha delves into the life of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last king
of Sri Lanka, and critically analyzes his legacy.
The historical portrayal of Sri
Vikrama Rajasinha often paints him as a tyrant, a perception that has lingered
in the minds of many people. Feelings of anger and aversion towards Sri Vikrama
Rajasinha continue to exist, and they are deeply rooted in the shared
historical experiences in the collective unconscious of many Sri Lankans.
However, Professor Gananath
seeks to challenge these long-held beliefs. While the narrative has often
characterized him as a cruel dictator responsible for numerous atrocities,
including acts of violence against innocents, these accounts may not tell the
full story. According to Professor Gananath, the image we have of him is a
distorted one, shaped by the psychological operations and propaganda that were
used by the British invaders. By examining a variety of historical evidence,
Gananath aims to uncover the real Sri Vikrama Rajasinha and shed light on his
true character.
Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, also
known as Prince Kannasamy, was born in 1780. There are intriguing tales
surrounding his origins, suggesting that he was the son of a widowed Nayakkar
Rajamaheshika's sister and Pilimatalavuva, a chieftain from the Kandyan
kingdom.
Pilimatalavuva Maha Adikaram
wielded a significant influence and played a crucial role in securing and
bringing Prince Kannasamy to the throne. By 1798, at just sixteen years of age,
he found himself ruling over the Kandyan kingdom, with Pilimatalavuva by his
side, guiding his decisions. However, Pilimatalavuva had ulterior motives.
Pilimatalavuva aimed to first place Kannasamy in power, only to later oust him,
ultimately paving the way for the establishment of a Sinhala royal dynasty.
Sri Vikrama Rajasinha's reign
lasted only 17 years. When the British captured him, he was a striking young
man of 35, standing approximately six feet tall. Descriptions from English
physician Henry Marshall highlight his large, dark eyes, an inviting
countenance, and a well-groomed beard that lent him a commanding presence. His
robust build added to his notable appearance.
Professor Gananath indicates several
of his significant accomplishments. King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha is credited with
the creation of the artificial Kandy Lake, alongside the renowned Cloud Wall
(Walakulu Bamma). He also made significant modifications to the Royal Palace
complex, which stands at the center of the city. His remarkable impact on the
development and architectural allure of Kandy has largely been overlooked by
history. At the heart of this vibrant "cosmic city," he ingeniously
designed the temple complex and lake, forming a captivating centerpiece.
British captain Robert Percival
reflects on King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha as a lover of music, endowed with gentle
qualities. To understand him better, we should consider the reigns of the kings
before him.
King Seethawaka Rajasinghe (1532
– 1593) was a fierce warrior who brought fear into the hearts of Portuguese
invaders. However, in the latter stages, he showed signs of psychological
distress, possibly stemming from combat fatigue (PTSD?). His paranoia led him
to execute many of his generals and nobles out of sheer suspicion.
Then there was King Rajasinghe II
(1608 – 1687). English prisoner Robert Knox offers a glimpse into the king's
unpredictable and harsh laws. A notable incident recounts how, while swimming
in a river, the king feigned drowning to test the loyalty of two young men.
When they courageously swam to his rescue, their reward was a tragic
fate—execution for having touched the royal body. This serves as a stark
reminder of the unpredictable cruelty that defined his reign. There is no historical documentation to
indicate that King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha acted in such a thoughtless manner.
Professor Gananath indicates the
misconceptions surrounding the last king, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. Some British
diplomats unfairly characterized him as lacking intelligence and bravery, with
reports suggesting he struggled with alcoholism. However, the reality was quite
different. Those British envoys who interacted with him later came to recognize
that Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was not only intelligent and spiritual but also a
man of substance. He was well-educated and often engaged in meditation to find
peace and clarity.
Pilimatalavuva Maha Adikaram’s Role
There’s not a great deal of
detail in our history books regarding Pilimatalavuva Adhikaram. It appears that
he was quite the strategist, adept at navigating the political landscape. He
played a significant role in elevating Sri Vikrama Rajasinha to the throne,
though it seems he had his own motives at heart, potentially aiming to usurp
the throne for himself at some point.
Pilimatalavuva Maha Adikaram was
the third son in a lineage of Kandyan chieftains, tracing its roots back to a
distinguished family that served the Sinhalese kings since ancient times. This
lineage was further enriched through the integration with South Indian nobility
who came to the Kandyan Kingdom during the rule of Sri Vira Parkrama
Narendrasinha of Kundasale.
His full name was Pilimatalavuva
Vijesundera Rajakaruna Senaviratne Abhayakoon Panditha Mudiyanse, also known as
Urulevatta Agra Senadhipathi and Arave Pallegampaha Maha Adikaram III. Both his
father and older brother held the title of Maha Adikaram before him.
His dealings with the British were particularly intriguing; he didn’t just
collaborate with them but also orchestrated their movements, inviting British
forces into the central region, possibly to exploit their weaknesses.
Throughout this, he maintained a delicate balance with Sri Vikrama Rajasinha,
who relied on him emotionally.
Pilimatalavuva Adhikaram masterfully
portrayed himself as an ally to the British, showcasing a level of prudence
that outshone Keppetipola Disawe, who relied more on bravery than strategy. In
a time marked by internal strife and external threats, Pilimatalavuva Adhikaram
navigated his situation with great care over an extended period. He planned to
bring the English army into the heart of the country and then annihilate the
troops. However, Frederick North, the Governor of British Ceylon, found
Pilimatalavuva's maneuvers questionable and responded with caution. A single
miscalculation ultimately led to his undoing, sealing his tragic fate. It's
fascinating to consider him as the ancient Sri Lankan equivalent of Robert
McNamara.
1803; The First Kandyan War
The British invasion of Ceylon
in 1803, referred to as the First Kandyan War, marked an unsuccessful effort by
Governor Frederick North to subjugate the independent Kingdom of Kandy. Colonel
James Stuart commanded around 2,700 troops, which included British regiments
(71st, 72nd, and 73rd), Madras Native Infantry, and artillery, alongside
auxiliary forces. This contingent was part of a larger British military
presence on the island, totaling between 4,000 and 5,000 personnel, including
local Malay and Sepoy infantry.
The campaign resulted in a
staggering loss of life, with 1,091 British soldiers perishing from January to
June, leading some accounts to characterize the conflict as a massacre
inflicted by the Kandyan forces. The British army, consisting of 3,387 soldiers
from seven regiments, faced severe casualties due to both disease and combat,
culminating in a significant defeat in the island's interior. Their
underestimation of Kandyan resistance, combined with unfamiliarity with the
terrain and the challenges posed by guerrilla warfare, contributed to this
disastrous outcome.
Frederick North’s Clandestine Services to the Islanders
Frederick North, 5th Earl of
Guilford, was the Governor of British Ceylon from 1798 to 1805. Surprisingly,
the important role he played during his tenure isn’t mentioned in our history
lessons. North was the pioneer of the civil service in Ceylon and dedicated
much of his efforts to improving education. He also initiated the vaccination
campaign against smallpox, a disease that claimed the lives of tens of
thousands of Sri Lankans each year. (As someone who served as an MOH, I wasn't
even aware of his contributions to public health in Sri Lanka.) In addition to
these reforms, he established both domestic and foreign postal services and
worked to abolish the "Rajakai system," which had allowed officials
to exploit ordinary villagers without consequence. Thanks to North’s
educational reforms, in 1811, Mudali Abraham de Seram's two sons became the
first Sri Lankans to study abroad, attending Trinity Hall in England. Mudali
Abraham de Seram is noteworthy himself; he famously read the Kandyan Agreement
in Sinhala at Magul Maduwa in 1815, indicating his role as a language
translator.
However, towards the end of his
term, North faced significant work-related stress, which may have led to
adjustment disorder, prompting his return to England. Following his departure,
Thomas Maitland took over from 1805 until March 19, 1811.
The Murder of Lewke Disawa
The Lewke
family held a prominent position in society during the Kandyan period, forging
strong ties with the ruling dynasties of the time. Legend has it that this
family traced its origins back to Brahmins who arrived on the island during the
reign of King Vijayabahu I in the 11th century.
Among them, Lewke Disawa stood out not only for his impressive physique but
also as a formidable wrestler and a respected military commander under King Sri
Vikrama Rajasinha. The circumstances surrounding Lewke Disawa’s death remain
somewhat murky.
In
September 1803, as the Sinhalese army prepared to assault the English fort at
Hanwella, he expressed confidence to King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, suggesting
that taking the fort would be straightforward. However, during the course of
the battle, a rumor reached the king that Lewke was idling in a paddy field
instead of participating in the decisive battle. Fueled by distrust,
exacerbated by the schemes of those around the court, the king perceived
Lewke's actions as a lack of commitment. In a moment of misjudgment, he ordered
Lewke's execution.
Notably,
Gananatha hints at a deeper narrative behind this tragic event, suggesting
possible secret dealings between Lewke and the British, indicating that his
actions may have been more than simple insubordination. Rather, it seems there
might have been layers of intrigue and betrayal at play in the unfolding of
these events. Although the historical record does not show that Lewke Dissawa
had secret dealings with the British. But he was suspected of attempting to
assassinate the king. It can be assumed that the king ordered his execution for
these reasons.
The Brutal Murder of the Entire
Ehelepola Family
The Ehelepola family met a
tragic fate in 1814, as they were executed on the orders of Sri Vikrama
Rajasinha, following the betrayal of his chief, Ehelepola Adikaram. The king
ordered the drowning of his wife, daughters, and sister-in-law in Kandy Lake,
while his infant son was killed in a rice pounder. King Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe
ordered Ehelepola Kumarihamy to kill her infant by pounding its head with a
pestle.This atrocity sparked widespread outrage among the populace and
significantly contributed to the king's eventual downfall.
Ganatha argues that the killings
of the Ehelepola family were not as savage as historical accounts suggest,
claiming that these events have been exaggerated as part of a British
psychological warfare against the doomed king. He posits that John Doyley
played a crucial role as a spy, spreading rumors and effectively securing the
support of the local populace for the British invasion of Kandy. Furthermore,
reports from Gregory Powell’s book, The Kandyan Wars: The British Army in
Ceylon, 1803–1818, indicate that the practice of infanticide, killing an infant
by pounding its head with a pestle, was not initiated by Sri Wickrama
Rajasinghe. According to him, the Dutch had adopted this inhumane method way
before Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe. During a Dutch assault on a Portuguese fort, a
Portuguese woman was compelled to kill her baby, pounding the infant with a
pestle before being sent back to the fort. Professor Ganatha speculates that
Portuguese General Acevedo also adopted these inhumane methods.
The question arises whether the
king derived a sadistic pleasure from the brutality inflicted upon the
Ehelepola family, including small children. Professor Ganatha argues against
the notion that Ehelepola's family endured inhumane torture. He clarifies that
while Ehelepola's wife and children were executed in accordance with existing royal
law, the process was not carried out cruelly or theatrically, as history shows.
It was Jan Egberts Thoen, a Dutch
soldier, who concocted this alarming tale, which John D'Oyly subsequently
reported to his superiors.
The Plight of Ehelepola Nilame
Ehelepola Nilame emerged as a
contentious figure during the final years of the Kandy Kingdom, with some
historians accusing him of betraying Sri Lanka to the British. Born in
Ehelepola village in the Matale district in 1773, he was the son of Padikara Nilame
and Kossinne Kumarihamy. Ehelepola married Monarawila Kumarihamy, the sister of
Keppetipola's Disawa, who later led the Uva Rebellion in 1818.
Appointed by King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha to govern the
Sabaragamuwa region, Ehelepola's transfer was shrouded in speculation, with a
popular but unfounded legend suggesting it was due to the king's infatuation
with Ehelepola's wife. (This may not be true, and this rumor was fabricated to
tarnish the king’s image.)
During his tenure, Ehelepola
engaged in negotiations with the British to protect the Kanda Udarata kingdom
from the Nayakkar clan, forming a friendship with John D'Oyly’s informant,
Wattala Appu, in 1811. However, tensions escalated as Molligoda Nilame fed the
king with information that sowed discord between Ehelepola and Sri Vikrama
Rajasinha. Ultimately, Ehelepola harbored ambitions of usurping the throne with
British military support, prompting General Sir Robert Brownrigg to monitor him
closely.
In 1814, Ehelepola initiated a
rebellion against the king, expecting British assistance that never
materialized, leading to the uprising's brutal suppression and his subsequent
flight to British-controlled territory, where he sought protection.
General Robert Brownrigg relied
on Ehelepola to help him subdue the Kandyan kingdom, yet Ehelepola's
aspirations of kingship ultimately ended in disappointment. Over time, he
became a liability for the British authorities, facing ongoing distrust.
Following the uprising of 1818, Ehelepola was exiled to Mauritius, where he
passed away in 1829 while still in exile.
John D'Oyly—the British Spy
Professor Gananath Obeyesekere highlights the significant role of John D'Oyly,
a skilled spy and master manipulator who adeptly learned the Sinhala language
and immersed himself in the local culture. This strategic masquerade allowed
him to win the trust of the native population. D'Oyly established a network of
informants, including merchants and Buddhist monks, who provided crucial
intelligence about the Kandyan kingdom. For instance, the Buddhist monks such
as Rev. Ahugoda, Rev. Godamunna, Rev. Hurukgamuwa, and Rev. Koskandawala were
John D'Oyly’s informants.
Recognized as an exceptionally
talented British spy, he understood the immense value of information and
employed psychological tactics to sway public opinion against the king. His
efforts were instrumental in laying the groundwork for the British invasion of
Kandyan territory, especially after the disastrous defeat of British forces in
1803 during the First Kandyan Expedition.
This campaign, which initially
saw the capture of Kandy, ultimately resulted in a retreat marked by guerrilla
warfare that decimated British troops. D'Oyly believed that the conquest of the
Kandyan kingdom could be achieved through intellect rather than brute force, a
strategy that ultimately succeeded where the Portuguese and Dutch had failed.
Following the British victory, D'Oyly was appointed as the Resident and First
Commissioner of Government in the Kandyan Provinces. While Gregory Powell's
book, "The Kandyan Wars: The British Army in Ceylon, 1803–1818,"
suggests that D'Oyly's death was a suicide, many historians contest this claim,
asserting that he succumbed to a remittent fever during an official tour in the
Seven Korles in May 1824.
Molligoda Disawa ; the shrewd Operator
Molligoda Disawa entered the
court of King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha in 1803, quickly establishing himself as a
cunning strategist who gained the king's confidence. He played a pivotal role
in sowing discord between Sri Vikrama Rajasinha and Ehelepola Nilame. Often
described as vindictive and conniving, Molligoda was seen by Professor Gananath
as a clever figure who navigated treacherous waters with skill. In a fateful
turn, he aligned himself with the British forces, choosing to forsake his king.
Prior to this bold decision, he ensured the safety of his wife and children by
sending them to the British side, aided by Major Hook of the British Army. Ehelepola
Nilame put his wife and children's lives at risk by aligning himself with the
British. In contrast, the clever Molligoda took decisive action to protect his
family from danger. Molligoda remained loyal to the British, even
supporting them during the uprising of 1818. However, as time passed, he grew
increasingly isolated and fell into alcoholism. Molligoda Disawa passed away in
1823.
Rev Wariyapola Sri Sumangala’s Heroic Act
The popular narrative in Sri Lankan
history portrays Wariyapola Sri Sumangala as a heroic Buddhist monk who boldly
removed the Union Jack and raised the Sinhalese lion flag prior to the 1815
Kandyan Convention. However, Ganatha challenges this account, suggesting that
it was a fabrication. This revelation might provoke disillusionment and anger
among nationalists. It is crucial to prioritize historical accuracy over the
perpetuation of myths, as this incident appears to be an exaggeration that
never actually took place. The convention was heavily secured, preventing any
unauthorized access, and official reports do not document any such
disturbances. In his book, The Kandyan Wars: The British Army in Ceylon,
1803-1818, Gregory Powell provides a detailed account of the Kandyan Convention
without mentioning this event, further supporting the notion that the story is
a fictional tale that has spread through oral tradition.
1818 Uva–Wellassa Rebellion
The Uva-Wellassa Rebellion of 1818 was sparked by the British
violation of the Kandyan Convention, a disregard that ignored the region's
traditions, disrespected the rights of Kandyan chiefs, and imposed harsh rule
on the Kandyan people. Growing frustration with British governance led to a
significant uprising, led by notable figures such as Monarawila Keppetipola
Nilame, Madugalle Basnayake Nilame, and Ellepolla Nilame, all of whom were
eager to reclaim the Kandyan Kingdom.
Despite the rebels' determination, the uprising was
ultimately crushed by the British, who possessed far greater military strength.
A lack of cohesive leadership among the insurgents further weakened their
resistance. The British employed severe tactics, including a scorched-earth
policy that devastated resources and created an atmosphere of terror among the
local populace.
Major MacDonald of the British Army engaged in retaliatory
actions by setting fire to homes, destroying crops, and slaughtering livestock.
Collaborators faced execution, while others were forced into exile. Even family
members were not spared, being taken as prisoners. (Decades later, in
1864-1865, US Army General William T. Sherman adopted a scorched-earth strategy
during his March to the Sea, aiming to dismantle the Confederacy’s will and
resources for continuing the war).
Some Kandyan chieftains, like Molligoda Maha Adikaram and
Ratwatte Adikaram, sided with the British, while loyalty from other chiefs in
areas like Tun Korele and Hathara Korele helped the colonial powers suppress
further rebellions. Historical accounts indicate that the British resorted to
brutal measures to extinguish the revolt, implementing collective punishments,
destroying property, and executing key rebel leaders. Ultimately, the rebellion
failed due to internal discord and inadequate planning within the ranks of the
insurgents.
The Doomed King
Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe, the
final monarch of the Kandy Nayak Dynasty of Telugu descent, reigned from 1739
until 1815. During his rule, some contemporary writers labeled him a Tamil
king, a politically motivated tactic aimed at undermining his popularity among
the populace. Despite these challenges, he was known for his contributions to
architecture and his support of Buddhism, notably completing the Dalada
Maligawa complex with the addition of the Pattirippuva. Following the British
conquest, he was exiled to Vellore Fort in India, where he remained until his
death in 1832.
There is a plausible theory
suggesting that the British covertly administered small doses of arsenic to Sri
Wickrama Rajasinghe to expedite his demise. This practice was not isolated, as
reports indicate that Sinhala rebels in exile also received arsenic, leading to
symptoms such as stomach issues, including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea with
dyspnea and swollen feet before their deaths. Notably, Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe
experienced similar symptoms in his final days. This method of poisoning was
also employed against Napoleon, who succumbed to comparable health problems,
with arsenic later detected in his hair. During his exile, the king fathered a
son, Rajadhi Rajasinha, who died of unknown causes in exile in Vellore Fort,
India, in 1843. The death of Rajadhi Rajasinha has intensified suspicions regarding
the circumstances surrounding these events.
