Dr Ruwan M Jayatunge M.D.
Of all the tasks of
government, the most basic is to protect its citizens from violence.-
John Foster Dulles
Commonly violence is defined as the intentional
use of physical force or power, threatened or actual against oneself, another
person or against a group or community that either results in or has a high
likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development,
or deprivation (Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi& Lozano, 2002).
Political violence refers to acts of
violence undertaken to further the political objectives. Violence is a common
means used by people and governments around the world to achieve political
goals. In this context Sri Lanka is one of the countries that is highly
affected by political violence. The scale and intensity of political violence
has increased in Sri Lanka over the past few decades. Violence has become a
common occurrence during the elections in Sri Lanka. Violence pervades Sri
Lankan social and cultural life.
Political violence and its
associated factors are complex and multidimensional. There are many theories
are associated with individual and collective violence. Based on social
learning theory Albert Bandura argued that individuals especially children
learn aggressive responses from observing, others, either personally or through
the media and environment. Bandura further stated that many individuals,
believed that aggression will produce reinforcements. These reinforcements can
formulate in to reduction of tension, gaining financial rewards, or gaining the
praise of others, or building self-esteem.
In 2002 the National Academy of
Science indicated that violence can occur in waves with highly publicized
crimes copied by others. The social learning processes reflected in, such
contagious episodes include imitation and vicarious reinforcement.
Duncan Pedersen emphasizes the root
causes for the political violence and of the view that in poor and highly indebted
countries, economic and environmental decline, asset depletion, and erosion of
the subsistence base lead to further impoverishment and food insecurity for
vast sectors of the population. Growing ethnic and religious tensions over a
shrinking resource base often escort the emergence of predatory practices,
rivalry, political violence, and internal wars. (Duncan Pedersen-Political
violence, ethnic conflict, and contemporary wars: broad implications for health
and social well-being).
In Sri Lanka ideological differences
, racial tensions and even personal grudges have amplified political violence
and there had been many deaths and destruction of property over the years.
Typically in every major election violence has become a common occurrence and
during elections many people live in heightened fear and anxiety. Violent
assaults , intimidation , murders , rape and arson had been reported in the
past elections. Many perpetrators who commit such violence go unpunished due to
political interferences and deficiencies in the criminal justice system.
Therefore political violence has become an unstopable crime.
Collective Violence
The collective violence is defined
as instrumental use of violence by people who identify themselves as members of
a group-whether this group is transitory or has a more permanent
identity-against another group or set of individuals in order to achieve
political, economic or social objectives.
William Kornhauser introduced the
social attachments theory of collective violence and it deals with the
influence of a person’s interaction with society on their potential for
membership in violent groups. This theory explains that people who have no
attachments to society are more likely to join a group in order to have a sense
of belonging.
Collective violence is often social
control: self-help by a group. It typically defines and responds to conduct as
deviant. When unilateral and nongovernmental, it appears in four major forms
lynching, rioting, vigilantism and terrorism each distinguished by its system
of liability (individual or collective) and degree of organization higher or
lower. ( Roberta Senechal de la Roche Department of History, Washington
University).
In Sri Lanka, collective violence
had occurred in the form of riots, protests ,banditry and gang warfare etc.
Collective violence in Sri Lanka has taken place in political or ethnic
dimensions and it has a drastic impact on mental health, as well as the
economy.
The World Health Organization (2008)
National Report on Violence and Health- Sri Lanka specifies that, immediately
before the country gained Independence from the British in 1948, violence in
any form was not common as it is today and had not assumed political or ethnic
dimensions. Diverse causes that precipitated group violence too were almost
non-existent and individual acts of violence – killings, rape, abductions,
looting, banditry and so on were scarce with little impact on the overall
social, order of the country. In the pre-independence period collective
violence, if at all was in the, form of struggle for freedom against the
foreign rulers. ( WHO National Report on Violence and Health- Sri Lanka 2008).
Fanon on Violence
Frantz Fanon -the well known French
Algerian Psychiatrist designates violence as a cleansing force which frees the
person from his inferiority complex and from his despair and inaction; it makes
him fearless and restores self-respect’(The Wretched of the Earth by Frantz
Fanon). Commenting on Fannon 's theoty Peter Worsley is giving more dapth
analysis in his article "Frantz Fanon and the Lumpenproletariat ".
Peter Worsley states that violence is often thought of sentimentally, as a
deviation from a, normal condition of natural order and shared understandings.
Thus, violence is often treated as social "pathology". Yet even the
most, orthodox political theorists also recognize, often quite inconsistently
that in the last analysis ruling Clites depend upon force, even if they,
usually try to buttress their power by persuading those they rule that they
have a legitimate right to rule.
In Sri Lanka many politicians use
political violence to gain public attention, popularity and to induce fear
among the opponents. Often the violence is marked by territorial aggression and
the aggressor expects submissive behaviour , conformity and respect.
Scapegoating
Scapegoating is a hostile social -
psychological discrediting routine by which people move blame and
responsibility away from themselves and towards a target person or group.
Sometimes political violence could emerge as an act of scapegoating. The French
Philosopher Rene Girard described "scapegoat mechanism" in which
particular groups are held responsible for various social maladies. These
groups are demonised , excluded and then subjected to violence. The scapegoat
theory of inter group conflict provides an explanation for the correlation
between times of relative economic despair and increases in prejudice and
violence toward out groups.
Over the years the phenomenon of
Scapegoating has been seen in the Sri Lankan society and sometimes sinister
political groups have targeted specific people or communities for economic and
cultural decline. Sometimes it was done to achieve egoistic political
advantages. These actions had caused deep mistrust , hate among the communities
and violent conflicts were erupted in the past .
Childhood Trauma
and Violent Behavior
Childhood trauma has a profound
effect on brain development and it can negatively affect the person in relation
with his / her behavior in the society. Children who had become the victims of
collective and personal violence might carry anger and resentment towards
society and it could erupt in a violent form. The researches indicate that
majority of the former members of the German Baader-Meinhof Group that engaged
in political violence had traumatized childhood. Many research confirm that the
link between adverse childhood experiences and social violence.
Trauma and violence that people
experience can pass in to the next generation and it can lead to a vicious
cycle. A 1998 study by R. Yehuda titled Vulnerability to posttraumatic stress
disorder in adult offspring of Holocaust survivors indicated that offspring of
Holocaust survivor parents with PTSD have a higher lifetime risk for PTSD and
report more distress after traumatic events. Therefore, sociopolitical violence
has severe damaging effects to the population.
A large number of Sri Lankan
children face sexual - physical and emotional abuse within the family circle,
in school, in religious institutions etc. Many of the victims do not get any
psychological treatment and often the time does not heal these traumas. They
grow up with the emotional scars silently hating their perpetrators. Once they
become adults they are ready to project their anger and resentment at any individual
or group.
The violence committed by most of
the members of the JVP during 1988-89 had tormented childhood and many were
affected by maternal deprivation ( Middle East Syndrome) , cast related
oppression and severe poverty. Some had the history of childhood sexual abuses.
One of the members who had such a childhood experience committed a politically
motivated crime ( shooting a family and then murdering their infant son with an
axe in the Southern part of Sri Lanka) without any remorse.
The victims with childhood trauma
frequently suffer from depression and anxiety and many have unresolved
psychological conflicts. They have free floating anger and it’s easy to
manipulate such victims and get them to commit atrocities by igniting their
deep rooted hatred. (Voltaire once said "those who can make you believe
absurdities can make you commit atrocities.") Numerous political groups in
Sri Lanka had recruited such characters to fulfill their political goals during
the past few decades. The abduction and assassination Daya Pathirana (in 1986)
assassination of Nandana Marasinghe (in 1988) and killing of Razmar Hussain of
Matale (in 1995) signify such crimes.
Lumpenproletariat
Factor and Political Violence
Uneducated under privileged social
elements (commonly called as goons ) play a crucial role in the Sri Lankan
politics since 1940s. Up to dated these elements are one of the decisive and
conspicuous factors in the Sri Lankan politics. All the leading political
parties use these social outcasts to get their dirty work done.
According Rev Udukandawella
Saranakara Thero who was an active supporter of the Left-wing political
movement in Sri Lanka revealed how their political meetings were violently
sabotaged by hired thugs of the United National Party. In 1958 these social
elements instigated racial riots with the help of local politicians. By 1960
many Members of Parliment had their own henchmen to attack the opposition
members when necessary. During 1971 uprising many SLFP MPs used their goons to
form a paramilitary group called Samanala Balakaya to fight the JVP rebels.
While retreating from Balapathhava -Kegalle to Sinharaja Forest a group of JVP
members headed by Samarathunga alias Bola Samare directly confronted with this
para military group and six of them were later executed by the rebels.
After 1977 the political goons
became more powerful and lethal. Gonawala Sunil was a powerful political thug
and even the Police used to salute him. Similarly Sothhi Upali had police
powers and sometimes pretended him self as a member of the Police Special Task
Force. Baddagane Sanjiva was officially attached to the PSD (President's
Security Division). Today the political thugs like Julampitiya Amre operate
with full political patronage and they have become untouchables.
In the recent past the
lumpenproletariat factor has evolved in to a new operational stage in Sri
Lanka. A large number of mob elements have entered politics by joining the
provincial councils. By becoming local political members they get exceptional
chances to evade Police investigations against them and also could engage in
illegal activities (drug business / extortion / sex trade/ transporting and
selling of illegal timber etc) without any legal interferences. According to
the Police sources some of the the provincial council members of Kamburupitiya
, Tanglle , Pujapitiya etc are charged with murders and sex crimes . But the
legal procedure against these people have been decelerated due to various
interferences and justice is not served to the victims yet.
Political Violence
and Antisocial Personality Disorder
From JRJ to the present leadership
every head of the state had his or her henchmen to carry out politically
connected violence. They were either ministers or the members of the parliament
or thugs with political patronage. Most of them were under educated and had
violently inclined behavior. These mob elements had committed a number of
atrocities and violent acts but they were always protected and safeguarded by
their political masters. This phenomenon has become a naked reality of politics
in Sri Lanka. These men were always above the law and had licenses to commit
violence in the name of their political leaders. In the psychological context,
these characters have deviant behaviors and fit in to the diagnostic category
of Anti-Social Personality Disorder (ASPD).
Antisocial Personality Disorder is a
condition characterized by persistent disregard for and violation of the rights
of others. Deceit and manipulation are central features of this disorder. The
people with ASPD disregard the social norms and respect to lawful behaviors.
They are impulsive as well as aggressive and with a slightest provocation they
can commit violent acts. They are also reckless disregard for safety of self or
others and irresponsible. Their characters are marked with lack of remorse.
They are selfish, callous and remorselessly use of others to full fill their
goals. They have chronically unstable, antisocial and socially deviant
lifestyles. When these brands of men become politically powerful, they can do a
vast damage to the country.
The Dynamics of
Political Popularity in Sri Lanka
A large number of Sri Lankan
politicians believe that violence would enhance their popularity and it could
give enormous public attention. They customarily think that political thuggery
is the key way of winning the hearts and minds of the public. Many use person
directed , institution directed or social directed violence to achieve
popularity and establish power. In addition some use indirect violence as modes
of threats or sanctions. In the resent past some politicians have imposed
unlawful -unconstitutional sanctions such as prohibition of selling meat ,
specific vegetables in their respective electorates.
There were no public outcry or
protest following these unlawful acts and the public always maintained silence.
The other poignant fact is that the election results in Sri Lanka indicate that
the politicians who use violence have more chance to win and those who practice
decent and civilized methods of politics had disappeared from the political
arena. Therefore the voters have a great responsibility to elect educated and
decent candidates who denounce violence and prevent political violence in the
country.
Religious
Fundamentalism and Violence
Religious fundamentalism has become
a subject of much controversy and debate and it has become one of the
contributors of collective violence in the modern world. In the past few
decades, collective violence had occurred in Sri Lanka as a part of religious
fundamentalism and this trend is aggravating.
The clergy who embrace violence and
socially unacceptable disharmonise path are often psychologically deviated and
they view people outside their religion or faith as opponents. They are
governed by US vs Them principle. They lack empathy when addressing issues
related to people outside of their religious circle and often justify violence
against them. They preach hate and instigate their followers to commit
violence. Often the clergy who support collective violence have had disturbed
childhood and some of them had been the victims of sexual abuse. Their anger
and resentments are generalized or projected to people outside their faith or
ethnic group. They put forth their insecurities as threats to the religion or
conspiracies against religion and use it to validate violence.
Annually a considerable number of
Sri Lankan children become victims of sexual violence. Desolately some of the
perpetrators have been identified as clergy and many of these molestations occur
in various religious institutions. Frequently these abuses occur repeatedly
over a long period. Sometimes the children with insidious sexual trauma get
attached to the perpetrators (like in the Stockholm Syndrome) and they could
become strong believers in their perpetrator's religion or faith. In the later
years these victims could become hate preachers and commit violence in the name
of the religion.
Political Extremism
that leads to Collective Violence
Laird Wilcox defines political
extremism as taking a political idea to its limits, regardless of 'unfortunate'
repercussions, impracticalities, arguments and feelings to the contrary, and
with the intention not only to confront, but also to eliminate opposition with
the intolerance towards all views other than one's own by adoption of means to
political ends which show disregard for the life, liberty, and human rights of
others."
Political extremism in Sri Lanka has
vivid faces and the extremism is often masqueraded by using national feelings
or religious ideology. Political extremist is one who advocates or resorts to
measures beyond the norm, especially in politics. His antisocial components are
often concealed and it can emerge when the time and situation is favorable. The
political extremists often try to create a homogeneous society that is based on
religion or ethnic group.
What is the deep psychology beneath
creating a homogeneous society disregarding human rights , overlooking multi
ethnicity or multi religious spectrum? This indicates the sadistic homosexual
instincts inside the extremist’s mind. This feature was evident in Adolf
Hitler’s mind. Hitler took every effort to create a homogeneous society in
Germany. Hitler believed that the Aryan race were supreme to other races and
did not have any racial tolerance. His extremism was connected with the
libidinous instincts. According to Henry Murray a prominent personality
specialist at Harvard University, Hitler was confused about his sexuality. He
directed his sexual sadism on his half niece Geli Raubal and Geli later
committed suicide. He has had unresolved sadistic homosexual instincts and took
many unconscious efforts to repress them. Hitler ordered to terminate gay men
probably he could not stand the repressed impulse that he had in his unconscious.
According to the DSM 4,
homosexuality is not a mental illness but homosexual instincts mixed with
sadistic traits and if the person is deeply troubled by it, a pathological
condition may appear. A political extremist who is deeply confused with his
sexuality unable to come to terms with his homosexual impulses would try to
create a homogeneous society under any cost. He would be focused and make this
extreme vision as his life mission. The German people once surrendered their
liberty to such a person.
Political Violence
and Democracy
Political violence manifests itself
at all levels of social organization. The prolonged arm conflict in Sri Lanka
has caused a massive and radical transformation in democracy justifying
political violence. Free arm circulation aggravated the condition and violence
has become a part of day today life. Many politicians facilitated such
conditions and saw it as one of the easy ways to grab power and rule inspiring
fear among the opponents. The vicious cycle of political violence affected the
every layer of the Sri Lankan society.
Kristine Höglund, of the Dept. of
Peace and Conflict Research - Uppsala University describes the nature of
political violence in Sri Lanka.
……From the perspective of democratic
politics, violence and insecurity may affect the election results or the
outcome of elections in various ways. Threats and intimidation may be used to
interfere with the registration of voters. Voter turn out may be influenced if
large sections of the population refrain from casting their votes due to fear
of violence. Assaults, threats and political assassinations during the election
campaign may force political contenders to leave the electoral process or
prevent elections from taking place. ( Electoral Violence in War-Ravaged Societies:
The Case of Sri Lanka by Kristine Höglund )
When political violence is
prevailing citizens have no equal say in the decisions that affect their lives.
The violence does not allow people to elect their representatives
democratically. There is a drastic power dis-balance and people lose sense of
trust in the political system. The power shift become unequal and there is no
social justice in the state. In long term political violence could lead to
lawlessness, anarchy and terrorism.
Political violence
in the first parliamentary elections in Sri Lanka
The first parliamentary election of
Sri Lanka was held in 1947 and mob violence were unleashed in larger scale. As
a result of such action, one active supporter of the Communist Party of Sri
Lanka (pro-Soviet wing) was injured and became disabled. His 4-year-old son
became heavily traumatized by this incident. As a boy, he realized that the
people in politics made his father a disable aggravating their living
condition. In the later years, this disabled man’s son launched two
insurrections (in 1971 and in 1988) causing a collective trauma in Sri Lanka.
In both events, nearly 70,000 people lost their lives.
The Prabhakaran
Factor
Ethnic riots were initiated as a
part of political violence in Sri Lanka. In mid 1950s, some of the local
politicians organized gang violence against Tamils for cheap popularity. When
the tensions rose between the Tamils and the Sinhalese, some opportunists
fabricated awful stories to keep high emotions on both sides. There were rumors
that Sinhalese women were raped and murdered in the North and there were
similar exaggerated stories that stated brutal violence against Tamil women in
the South. Rumors as well as true incidents contributed racial violence that
was initiated by both sides. In one of the events a sacred Buddhist temple in
the North was destroyed by hooligans who were motivated by some extremist Tamil
politicians. Sir Oliver Gunathilaka took immediate and praiseworthy measures to
restore the temple and he took deliberate efforts to keep the event away from
the newspapers. Short sighted Sinhala and Tamil Politicians capitalized these
tension situations and sometimes aggravated it expecting political profits. In
the North, people started having doubts about democracy.
Young Prabhakaran used to listen to
the terrible stories that occurred in the Gal Oya riots (1956) and 1958 ethnic
riots where the mob savagely attacked Tamil civilians causing many deaths. As
the investigative journalist M.R.Narayan Swamy describes young Prabhakaran was
utterly ravaged when he heard the story of the violent murder of a Hindu
Poosari in Panadura. The Poosari was burnt alive by the mob during the ethnic
riots in 1958. Prabhakaran was determined to take revenge. He became very much
focused and his made his entire life mission to fight the Sinhalese. At the age
of 16, he committed his first antisocial act – setting fire to a CTB bus in
VVT. When he became the leader of the LTTE he ordered a number of massacres
including Anuradhapura massacre in 1985 and Aranthalawa Massacre in 1987 and
hundreds of suicide bombings targeting Sinhala civilians. Hence, Prabhakaran
launched his terror for three decades causing over 90,000 deaths in Sri Lanka.
Violence Conducted
by the Radical Political Groups in Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, several radical
political organizations conducted violence to achieve their political targets.
The JVP launched two insurrections in 1971 and subsequently in 1988. Tamil
militant groups launched their violent campaigns since 1970 s and the LTTE
became the mainstream militant group that was in action until 2009 May.
As Professor Gamini Samaranayake
highlights the origin and development of the JVP and the LTTE relate more
closely to the social expansion and the lack of economic and political
development in Sri Lanka since the beginning of the 1960s. Basically, both
groups are more action-oriented than ideology-oriented and dominated by youth
with a similar socio-economic background.( Political violence in Sri Lanka: A
diagnostic approach Gamini Samaranayake )
The former JVP General Secretary
Lional Bopage explains the genesis of political violence in Sri Lanka in
following account.
…..the Island’s post-1948 political
leadership did not come into being as a result of a coherent anti-colonial struggle
that unified its people. The neo-colonial establishment not only carried
forward the policies and practices of the exclusively colonial, mono-cultural
and unitary administration, which were not only incongruent with the culturally
and linguistically diverse nature of its inhabitants, but also their
socio-economic, political and cultural expectations.
The post-colonial Sri Lankan state
never considered it significant to protect the dignity and security of
marginalized and disadvantaged social groups. Domestic issues were viewed and
dealt with in a mindset of a conflict paradigm. Peaceful demands for social
equity, justice, security and dignity were continuously disregarded and/or
violently suppressed. The indignity and insecurity caused by such attacks on
the physical and psychological integrity of individuals and communities thus
motivated them to take up arms.- (Political violence in Sri Lanka- L. Bopage).
The Ethnic Riots
and Political Violence
The human rights activist Rajan
Hoole points out that the politicians like Gamini Dissanayaka, Cyril Mathew etc
insinuated ethnic riots as a part of political violence. (Sri Lanka: The
Arrogance of Power: Myths, Decadence & Murder – Rajan Hoole)
Following extract is taken from Sri
Lanka: The Holocaust and After," by L. Piyadasa, Marram Books, London
(1984) which gives a comprehensive account how violence can be planned and
executed by the politicians.
In Kelaniya,
Industries Minister Cyril Mathew's gangs were identified as the ones at work.
The General Secretary of the government "union" the Jathika Sevaka
Sangamaya (J.S.S.) was identified as the leader of gangs which wrought
destruction and death all over Colombo and especially in Wellawatte, where as
many as ten houses a street were destroyed. A particular U.N.P. municipal
councillor of the Dehiwela-Mount Lavinia Municipality led gangs in Mount
Lavinia. In the Pettah (the bazaar area, where 442 shops were destroyed and
murders were committed) the commander was the son of Aloysius Mudalali, the
Prime Minister's right-hand man. And so on. Thugs who worked regularly for the
leaders of the U.N.P., the Ministers of State and Party Headquarters, and in
some cases uniformed military personnel and police, were seen leading the
attack. They used vehicles of the Sri Lanka Transport Board (Minister in
charge, M. H. Mohammed) and other government departments and state
corporations. Trucks of the Ceylon Petroleum Corporation's Oil Refinery came
from many miles away bringing the men who destroyed so much of Wellawatte. There
is much other evidence of this sort. In view of the quasi-governmental nature
of the "action," the killings that took place may have been difficult
for the eye-witnesses to resist ... But in the neighbourhoods, after the
initial shock, Sinhalese and Burghers organised themselves and kept off the
gangs who had been sent to burn and kill.
How Nuwara Eliya was erupted
following the minister Mr. Gamini Dissanayake s visit, specifies in Sri Lanka -
'Paradise' in Ruins," (Sri Lanka Co-ordination Centre, Kassel, 1983. )
The town was
closely guarded by the army. All vehicles were checked. Bus conductors had
orders not to transport Tamils. Minister Gamini Dissanayake came from Colombo
to Nuwara Eliya to hold a meeting with party members. The day before, M.P.
Herath Ranasinghe had arrested precautiously (sic) some well-known rowdies.
Soon after the end of Gamini Dissanayake's party meeting they were released.
These people went out immediately, well-equipped with petrol, iron rods and
other kinds of weapons, and tried to attack two Tamil priests in town. They
managed to escape. Without having succeeded they moved on - another mob joined
up with the first one. They laid a ring of petrol around a Tamil shop which was
then burnt.
Election Violence
Electoral violence has become a
widespread trait in Sri Lankan politics. It has profound effects on people and
their perceptions about politics and power. As Kristine Höglund, of Uppsala
University points out that the electoral violence is used for a number of
reasons: to hinder people from voting, to prevent candidates from campaigning,
to display discontent with election results, or to overthrow the outcome of the
election.
Politics in Sri Lanka and in the
Village Politics impede many aspects of life in Sri Lanka. In an anthropological
study of a rural village, politics in Sri Lanka is described as "a
consuming passion" (Spencer 1990) closely linked to nationalist and
religious identity formation. State-based political patronage is widespread in
Sri Lanka. State resources have been used by the party leaders for personal
benefits, to reward political loyalty, to remain in power, and to undermine the
opposition (Suri 2007).
Patron-client relationships are core
aspects of party politics and organization in Sri Lanka. The party workers and
supporters expect benefits in different forms – for themselves and for their
family. Such rewards include, for instance, employment opportunities, state
contracts and loans, or governmental welfare benefits (Suri 2007).
Series of violence were unleashed in
1977 elections and many people became victims. After the election victory in
1977, the newly appointed Prime Minister J.R Jayawardene gave vacation leave to
the Police Department. The supports of the ruling United National Party openly
attacked their political opponents.
Following is an eyewitness’s account
that narrates the magnitude of violence that occurred mainly in the rural
areas.
"My father was
a cooperative committee member during the Sirimavo Bandaranaike's regime. We
were not rich or privileged people and lived in a small house in Hasalaka area.
My father engaged in farming and we had a 2-acre paddy land where our family
members jointly worked. In 1977 election, my father openly supported for the
SLFP candidate. But he lost the election to the UNP candidate.
Soon after the
election, one evening a group of villagers came to attack our house. Many of
them were our neighbors whom we knew for generations. They shouted slogans and
then attacked our house with stones. The windows were broken. One person broke
our main door with an axe. Some assaulted my father and humiliated my mother.
We could not go to the police or seek justice. My father was upset about this
incident and became ill. He was very depressed and disconnected with the
people. He passed away less than one year after this incident.
Many decades have
past now and I had finished my school education and now working as a
schoolteacher. Sometimes I meet those villagers those who attacked our house in
1977. They are now old and enfeeble. Though I have no anger towards them, the
events that occurred soon after the 1977 election are very much unforgettable.
I still remember it like yesterday.
In the subsequent elections, this
violent trend became a foremost factor in Sri Lanka. Murders, assaults, rapes
and arson have became common crimes during election periods. In the infamous
Wayamba Provincial Council, election in 1999 , 52-year-old woman was assaulted
and stripped in public by a local politician.
An officer who was on the Election
Duty at the polling center at the Anamaduva electorate in 1999 observed mob
violence and documented his thoughts thus.
I was attached to
the Reginald Directorate of the Health Services in Puttlam and called for
election duty in 1999. There were many prominent politicians – local and
national level and many instigated violence. Uneducated youth from the lower
social strata gathered with these political elements. They were drunk and
shouting in filth to the opposition party members. Some people were publicly
assaulted and some houses were burnt. The police officers did nothing to stop
it and just became spectators. I approached one police officer and requested to
intervene. He looked at me as I was mad and said why should I interfere , this
is all planned, if I do interfere I would get a punishment transfer to Jaffna
tomorrow morning. I realized the policeman’s burden and thought for myself-this
country left us no hopes anymore. I was ashamed to be a Sri Lankan.
(within a few years the said officer
migrated to Australia)
In 2001 election, a new tendency
emerged in the Sri Lankan politics and politicians used army deserters and ex
combatants to initiate election violence in larger scale. Many combatants from
various fighting units became deserters and joined the politicians. The
culmination of the violence took place in Kandy on polling day for the General
Election and ten Muslim youth were gunned down in Udathalawinna.
Udathalawinna massacre case in which
General Anurudha Ratwatte, former Deputy Defense Minister, his two sons, Rohan
and Chanuka were indicted for various election violence and also for the
conspiracy to murder and committing the murder of ten Muslim youths on the
general election day on December 5, 2001 at Udathalawinne in Kandy district (
Udara Soysa – Asian Tribune 2005). In 2006 the Colombo High Court acquitted all
the suspects charged in connection with the Udathalawinna murder case.
A large number of combatants with
battle trauma took part in election violence from 2001 to 2010 elections and
some of them were believed to be undiagnosed PTSD patients. As military
psychologists indicate, anger and violence are prevalent problems combatants
with PTSD.
Matthew Tull, of the University of
Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson did extensive case work on PTSD and
social violence. According to him, individuals with PTSD may have intense and
unpredictable emotional experiences, and anger and aggressive behavior may ways
of establishing a sense of control. Anger may also be a way of trying to
express or release tension connected to uncomfortable emotions often associated
with PTSD, such as shame and guilt. His research on Iraq and Afghanistan War
veterans who screened positive for PTSD reported significantly greater anger
and hostility than those in the subthreshold-PTSD and non-PTSD groups. Veterans
in the sub threshold-PTSD group reported significantly greater anger and
hostility than those in the non-PTSD group.
It’s a known fact that the
traumatized soldiers can be used to commit political and social violence. This
factor was seen in Somalia and in Rwanda. Extreme groups transform traumatized
people into perpetrators of violence. At the end of the American Civil War,
extremists formed KKK that conducted a series of racial violence in America
through ex-soldiers. Many Lincoln brigade soldiers who fought in the Spanish
civil war involved in social violence soon after the Great Depression.
Psychological
Impact of Political Violence
There is a close relationship
between political violence, mental health and psychosocial wellbeing. Political
violence has a variety of discernible long-term effects on
political beliefs and attitudes, behavior and behavioral intentions, emotions,
and other psychological variables. It can massively affect the mental health of
the people. People constantly exposed to violence and deteriorating social
conditions, become emotionally insensitive and gradually losing their respect
for the values of life. The "culture of violence" transforms people
to believe that aggressive attitudes and violent behavior are normal and
acceptable in an environment where violence is viewed as an acceptable way to
get and maintain power and to solve problems. Therefore, psychological distress
and mental disorders are closely connected with political violence.
Political violence has negative
impact on public health and it causes erosion of socio-cultural values. When
violence take place children and women become the most vulnerable groups and
they are forced to bear the consequences. The political violence affect
communities creating a profound functional vacuum. Violence affect people in
individual and collective levels. Following community based collective violence
people lose basic trust and often maintain conspiracy of silence. Some plan
revenge.
When facing violence communities
disintegrate. The potential victims could become highly stressed, feared and
could feel powerless. Fear psychosis dominates the community. As groups begin
to fear for their safety, dangerous and, difficult-to-resolve strategic dilemmas
arise that contain, within them the potential for tremendous
violence….Ethnicactivists and political entrepreneurs, operating within,
groups, build upon these fears of insecurity and polarise, society (Lake and
Rothchild, 1996: 41).
Brandon A. Kohrt of the Emory
University, Atlanta, Georgia, did a clinical research of the Bhutanese refugees
in Nepal and the impact of the Maoist People's War and found that psychological
distress and mental disorders in situations of political violence.
Political violence is linked to poor
mental health outcomes at the individual and collective levels. People exposed
to political violence have symptoms of traumatic stress, depression, anxiety
and aggressive feelings and it can lead to a vicious cycle of further violence.
Raija-Leena Punamäki- Department of
Psychology, University of Helsinki did extensive study on political violence in
Palestine and according to him exposure to political hardships also increased
mental health problems, which is a reminder of the price which people are
forced to pay in order to cope with political violence.
The victims generally do not forget
the violent episodes that they experienced and frequently plan for revenge.
Hence violence turns in to a never ending cycle. There had been many reports
that those who suffered election related violence during 1970 took revenge from
their perpetrators in 1977 general election with the change of the government.
For nearly seven years they repressed anger and hatred until they found an
appropriate payback time. In one incident in 1977 July a foreman attached to
the Sri Lanka Petroleum Corporation was attacked with iron rods by some ex
workers and later the foreman succumbed to the injuries. The reason for this
attack was that the SLFP backed foreman had assaulted some of the UNP workers
and expelled them from the Petroleum Corporation soon after the 1970 election.
Ending Political
Violence in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is a beautiful country
with high 91% literacy rate. This earthly paradise has been deeply traumatized
by political violence for many decades. The violence has generated further
violence damaging inner layers of the communities making it more dysfunctional.
The politicians would not implement fruitful efforts to end politically
motivated violence and ending political violence in Sri Lanka is a
responsibility of an every citizen. When civil society is aware of the
disastrous and manipulative nature of political violence, they do not support
such action. When people have insight, they are not gullible or easily carried
out by false propaganda that instigates political violence. When the civil
society is strengthened , educated and well aware it is safeguarding democracy
and become the guardians of social justice. When there is a strong , literate ,
politically conscious and civilized civil society, there is no space for
political violence.
