Exploring Dutthagamani and the Buddhist Conscience

 

Dr Ruwan M Jayatunge M.D. PhD 

Professor Gananath Obeyesekere's work, "Dutthagamani and the Buddhist Conscience," enquires into the intricate details of the historical figure Dutthagamani (Dutugemunu), a king of ancient Sri Lanka, and the moral and ethical dilemmas that he encountered. His commitment to Buddhist principles often clashed with the harsh realities of military strategy, leading him to reflect on his conscience. Obeyesekere examines how the king's actions, particularly his military campaigns and the establishment of a Buddhist state, reflect the complexities of Buddhist conscience and the philosophical underpinnings of moral responsibility within the context of governance. He explores the tension between the king's pursuit of power and the Buddhist ideals of compassion and non-violence, highlighting how Dutthagamani's legacy is interpreted through various lenses of Buddhist thought. By analyzing historical narratives and religious texts, Obeyesekere provides a nuanced understanding of how cultural and spiritual beliefs shape political actions, ultimately contributing to a broader discourse on the intersection of religion and statecraft in Sri Lankan history. Moreover, Obeyesekere highlights the historical development of an "ambivalent conscience" within Sinhalese Buddhism, centered on the complex figure of King Dutthagamani aka Dutugemunu.

King Dutugemunu encountered a profound moral conflict in the aftermath of the Battle of Vijithapura, shaped by his upbringing in a devout Buddhist environment. In the midst of battle, he was compelled to kill a large number of enemy soldiers. These actions later shattered his consciousness.

Growing up in a Buddhist setting, Dutugemunu's values and beliefs were deeply influenced by Buddhist principles. He perceived the world through this lens of understanding. From an early age, he was taught that taking a life is a grave sin that condemns one to hell, leading him to grapple with the implications of his actions during the war, where he was responsible for the deaths of his adversaries. This internal struggle manifested as a tug-of-war between the concepts of sin and virtue, as well as the contrasting realms of hell and heaven. In this tumultuous state, the Buddhist monks provided solace to King Dutugemunu by suggesting that the enemies he had slain were heathens, thus downplaying the severity of his actions. However, Obeyesekere critiques this perspective, arguing that the Buddhist monks were manipulating Buddhist teachings for their own pragmatic ends.

A parallel can be drawn with Emperor Ashoka, who, after the Kalinga War, experienced a similar transformation in thought, leading him to forsake military conquest (Digvijaya) in favor of a path of righteousness (Dharmavijaya). Nevertheless, historical records indicate that Ashoka's Buddhist empire was ultimately short-lived, raising questions about the sustainability of such ideals in the face of realpolitik.

Every religion consists of two essential components: its beliefs and the way those beliefs are put into action. In Buddhism, violence and killing are fundamentally viewed as wrong. However, throughout history, there have been instances where some Buddhist monks have justified violent acts against adversaries to protect Buddhism during critical conflicts. A similar pattern can also be observed in the history of Christianity.

The notion of exterminating heretics as a pathway to divine reward emerged prominently during the Crusades, articulated through the fervent sermons of Pope Urban II and echoed by Islamic military leaders such as Saladin. This ideological framework, rooted in ancient traditions, has historically served as a justification for warfare, allowing both sides to frame their conflicts in a context of religious righteousness.

In this light, Obeyesekere highlights that these enduring concepts similarly influenced the military strategies employed by King Dutugemunu. The intertwining of faith and warfare in this manner illustrates how leaders have harnessed religious narratives to galvanize support for their military endeavors, thereby shaping the course of history through the lens of spiritual conviction.

  

King Dutugemunu (Dutthagamani)

Dutugemunu was a prominent monarch of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, reigning from 161 BC to 137 BC. He is celebrated for his pivotal role in unifying the entire island of Sri Lanka, a feat accomplished through the defeat and subsequent overthrow of Elara, an aggressor from the Chola Kingdom, who had invaded Anuradhapura in 205 BC. This victory not only marked a significant turning point in Sri Lankan history but also established King Dutugemunu as a national hero. In addition to his military conquests, he undertook extensive efforts to expand and enhance the city of Anuradhapura, transforming it into a center of cultural and political significance. His reign is characterized by the projection of the Rajarata kingdom's influence across the island, fostering a sense of unity and identity among the diverse populations of Sri Lanka. Through his leadership, King Dutugemunu left an indelible mark on the nation's history and heritage, solidifying his legacy as a unifier and visionary ruler.

King Dutugemunu occupies a significant place in the collective unconscious of the Sinhalese people, symbolizing the ideals of heroism, unity, and resilience. His legendary status stems from his pivotal role in the unification of Sri Lanka during a tumultuous period marked by conflict and division. Dutugemunu's triumph over King Elara is not merely a historical event; it represents the struggle for identity and sovereignty that resonates deeply within the cultural psyche of the people. His efforts to promote Buddhism and support the construction of stupas and monasteries not only reinforced his authority but also played a crucial role in the cultural renaissance of the time. His narrative is interwoven with themes of sacrifice and valor, serving as a source of inspiration for generations. The king's legacy is celebrated in various forms, including literature, art, and folklore, which perpetuate his image as a national hero.

Professor Gananath Obeyesekere emphasizes the complexities of Dutugemunu's character and the socio-political context of his reign. By examining the interplay between myth and history, Obeyesekere argues that the king's legacy is not merely one of military conquest but also reflects the intricate dynamics of power, religion, and cultural identity in ancient Sri Lanka.

Obeyesekere challenges the dominant narratives that have shaped national consciousness, calling for a critical reassessment of how historical figures are celebrated and remembered in contemporary society. Thus, while Dutugemunu is revered as a national hero, the darker aspects of his reign, marked by violence and the loss of life, complicate the narrative of his achievements and highlight the duality of his legacy.

It is a historical fact that King Dutugemunu emerged victorious in the battle against his enemies. Can we file a charge sheet against him for defending his homeland and eliminating threats to it? In confronting an invader, there are typically two courses of action: one can either capitulate or resist. Dutugemunu chose the latter, embodying the spirit of defiance that has characterized many leaders throughout history. Figures such as King Leonidas, William Wallace, and George Washington etc., also exemplified this resolve, risking their lives to oppose foreign domination. Given this context, it raises a critical question: how can the struggle against an invader be labeled as an unjust war of genocide?

The complexities of warfare often blur the lines between aggression and defense, and the motivations behind such conflicts are frequently rooted in the desire for sovereignty and the protection of one’s homeland. Thus, the characterization of these battles requires a nuanced understanding of the historical and cultural significance of resistance against oppression.

 

King Kavantissa

King Kavantissa, the father of King Dutugemunu, presided over the Ruhuna Kingdom from 205 to 161 BC. His reign was marked by strategic alliances, notably through his marriage to Viharamaha Devi, the daughter of King Kelanitissa of the Kalyani Kingdom. This union not only strengthened ties between the two kingdoms but also aligned the interests of the Kelaniya Magama with those of Kavantissa. Despite the presence of the Dravidian ruler Elara in Anuradhapura during his reign, Kavantissa chose a path of non-confrontation, laying the groundwork for Elara's eventual defeat without engaging in direct conflict.

When his son, Prince Dutugemunu, sought permission to wage war, Kavantissa adopted a cautious approach, prioritizing political prudence over immediate military action, a decision that the Mahavamsa later interpreted as cowardice. This reluctance to engage in battle at that time may have created a rift in understanding between father and son, as Dutugemunu struggled to grasp his father's strategic foresight until Kavantissa's death.

Historical texts such as Pali Rasavahini, indicate that Kavantissa was actively preparing for the conflict with Elara by overseeing the production of weapons and enhancing agricultural output to mitigate potential food shortages during wartime. His reign lasted approximately 45 years, concluding when he passed away at the age of 64.

Prince Dutugemunu struggled to comprehend the motivations and actions of his father, King Kavantissa, which ultimately resulted in a series of conflicts between the ambitious young prince and the seasoned monarch. As noted by Obeyesekere, these disputes transcended mere familial disagreements, hinting at deeper, more troubling tensions that may have included Dutugemunu's contemplation of regicide or even a coup against his father. (Dutugemunu may have harbored ambitions that led him to conspire against his own father, potentially plotting his assassination). Following a failed attempt to assert his power, the prince sought refuge in Kotmale, while King Kavantissa, intent on capturing his son, faced the grim possibility that arresting Dutugemunu could lead to a death sentence for the young prince. Obeyesekere posits that this fraught relationship, marked by conflict and the weight of guilt, would later haunt King Dutugemunu, shaping his reign and personal psyche in profound ways.

 

The Conflict Between Father and Son

Prince Dutugemunu's tumultuous relationship with his father, King Kavantissa, seems to have been marked by conflict from an early age. The young prince, known for his fiery temperament, was adamant about waging war against Elara, a stance that created significant tension between him and his father. Despite Prince Dutugemunu's repeated requests and permission to engage in battle, King Kavantissa steadfastly refused to acquiesce to his son's demands. In a moment of frustration, Prince Dutugemunu insulted his father by suggesting that Kavantissa was weak, even going so far as to send him a set of women's clothing as a derisive gesture.

This act of defiance incited the king's wrath, leading him to consider binding Prince Dutugemunu in chains, a decision he contemplated with the intention of using gold chains, reflecting a certain affection for his son. However, according to the narrative from Kotmale village, Kavantissa's anger escalated to the point where he contemplated killing the young prince. This drastic turn of events suggests that the young prince may have been involved in plotting against his father or attempting to usurp the throne. In a twist of fate, it is said that Viharamaha Devi, the prince's mother, secretly facilitated Prince Dutugemunu’s escape to Kotmale, indicating that the threat to his life from King Kavantissa was indeed serious and imminent.

Obeyesekere posits that Prince Gemunu's flight to Kotmale symbolizes a manifestation of the Oedipal conflict experienced between fathers and sons, a theme prevalent in South and Southeast Asian cultures. In contrast, based on Erik Erikson’s theories, one can interpret this escape as a delay in addressing the psychological turmoil that often accompanies adolescence, which is intrinsically linked to the Oedipus complex.

Historical texts, such as the Siamese manuscript "Jinakalamali," indicate that Prince Dutugemunu was merely sixteen years old when he sought refuge in the mountains following a confrontation with his father. Local legends from Kotmale further elaborate on this narrative, suggesting that the prince concealed his identity for a span of twelve years, adopting the alias "Gutta" during his time in hiding.

Sibling Rivalry

Conflicts arose between Prince Dutugemunu and his younger brother, Saddhatissa, soon after the death of their father, King Kavantissa. In the power struggle that ensued, Saddhatissa initially seized control, but Prince Dutugemunu, determined to reclaim his rightful place, engaged in a fierce battle against his younger brother and ultimately emerged victorious.

Although Prince Dutugemunu had the opportunity to kill his brother, he chose mercy over vengeance, sparing Saddhatissa's life. This act of restraint would later prove significant, as during the subsequent conflict against the invader Elara, Saddhatissa demonstrated his loyalty and support by supplying essential provisions, including food and resources, to aid Prince Dutugemunu in the war effort. This complex relationship between the brothers, marked by rivalry and eventual cooperation, highlights the intricate dynamics of power and familial bonds in their tumultuous era.

A significant conflict emerged between Prince Dutugemunu and his brother, Saddhatissa, as they vied for the throne, igniting a fierce war that resulted in substantial loss of life on both sides. This tragic confrontation, marked by its intensity and the fervor of familial rivalry, ultimately proved to be a devastating struggle that claimed the lives of countless individuals, many of whom were their own subjects. The futility of the conflict became apparent as the brothers' ambition for power led to the suffering of their people, raising questions about the true cost of their aspirations. In the aftermath of the war, it is believed that King Dutugemunu grappled with feelings of guilt and remorse, reflecting on the senselessness of the bloodshed that had occurred in pursuit of a crown that had ultimately brought only sorrow and annihilation.

 

King Ellara

Ellara, known as Ellalan in Tamil, was a prominent Chola king who ruled a large part of Northern Sri Lanka, including the ancient capital Anuradhapura, from 205 BC to 161 BC. According to Mahāvaṃsa (Sri Lanka's historical records are centered on the Mahavamsa), his reign is marked by a reputation for fairness and justice, which earned him the title 'the Just King.

Notably, even the Sinhalese people recognized him as a just ruler, as documented in the Mahavamsa, which highlights his equitable treatment of both allies and adversaries in legal matters. This chronicle recounts a particularly striking episode where he ordered the execution of his own son for committing a grave religious offense, underscoring his unwavering commitment to justice. Despite being an invader, Ellalan is often celebrated as one of Sri Lanka's most sagacious and fair monarchs, a sentiment echoed by his rival, King Dutugemunu, who, upon defeating him in battle, commanded the construction of a monument at the site of Ellalan's cremation, signifying the respect he commanded even from his enemies.

King Elara is believed to have practiced Zoroastrianism rather than Hinduism or Buddhism, which is exemplified by his drastic actions, such as executing his son by running him over with a chariot, a punishment aligned with the laws of Hammurabi. This act could have been motivated by a desire for political gain or popularity. Notably, even Sinhala generals served under his command, indicating a complex political landscape during his rule from 205 BC to 161 BC.

According to Professor Senarath Paranavithana, Elara was a leader of merchant ships, and there is speculation that he may have been linked to the Mutasiva dynasty, possibly embodying a blend of Hela and Ara heritage. Interestingly, it is suggested that there were Buddhists within Elara's administration, which complicates the narrative of the Elara-Dutugemunu war, often mischaracterized as a Sinhala-Tamil conflict. Instead, it can be viewed as one of the early religious wars in history, reminiscent of earlier conflicts in Egypt, with reports indicating that the Sinhalese were internally divided during this war, leading to tragic consequences among their own ranks.

Obeyesekere’s analysis of the seventeenth-century text, Rajavaliya, offers a fresh perspective on the historical figure of Elara, portraying him as an unequivocally malevolent ruler. The narrative describes Elara as a king who commanded a formidable force. This vast military might be responsible for the destruction of the revered Dagoba in Anuradhapura, a significant cultural and religious site. Elara's reign, characterized by tyranny and cruelty, lasted for an astonishing forty-four years, during which he is depicted as ruling with an iron fist, leaving a legacy marked by oppression and devastation.

Obeyesekere highlights that Elara and his military forces engaged in the harassment of local populations and the desecration of sacred religious sites, actions that incited significant unrest among the communities in the Ruhuna region. This persistent mistreatment and violation of cultural sanctity ultimately culminated in a conflict against Elara, as the local inhabitants united in their resistance to protect their homes and beliefs. The situation escalated as the local populace, fueled by a sense of injustice and the need to defend their heritage, organized themselves to confront the military might of Elara, leading to a broader struggle that would define the historical landscape of the area. The repercussions of these actions not only affected the immediate community but also reverberated throughout the region, marking a pivotal moment in the ongoing narrative of resistance against oppression.

The Decisive Battle

The Battle of Vijithapura stands as a pivotal war in Sri Lankan history, marked by King Dutugemunu's determined efforts to expel the South Indian invader Elara. Initiating the campaign to reclaim his homeland, King Dutugemunu successfully seized several of Elara's formidable strongholds before reaching the strategic location of Vijithapura.

Intense combat erupted at the southern gate of the city, where the king's vast army engaged in a perilous struggle. Over the course of four months of relentless warfare, Dutugemunu's forces achieved significant victories, demonstrating their resilience and strategic prowess. Historical evidence suggests that the site of the Vijithapura fort, where this monumental clash occurred in 161 BC, is likely situated in Polonnaruwa. The successful capture of Vijithapura played a crucial role in facilitating the Sinhalese army's advance towards Anuradhapura. Ultimately, King Dutugemunu fulfilled his military objectives by defeating Elara in 161 BC, thereby unifying the nation and solidifying his legacy as a national hero.

In the climactic confrontation, a staggering number of soldiers from both factions perished, with casualties reaching into the tens of thousands. Amidst the chaos and carnage, Dutugemunu faced his rival in a fierce duel, ultimately emerging victorious by slaying his opponent. This decisive moment, while pivotal in the context of the battle, was overshadowed by the overwhelming tragedy that unfolded on the battlefield. The final clash was marked by a profound sense of loss and despair, as the echoes of clashing swords and the cries of the wounded filled the air, leaving an indelible mark on the collective memory of those who survived. The sheer scale of the devastation and the personal toll it took on the soldiers and their families rendered the events of that day a deeply traumatic experience, one that would haunt the survivors long after the dust had settled.

 

King Dutugemunu and Post-Combat Depression

The experience of depression is often closely linked to individuals who have participated in combat. Post-combat depression is a significant psychological condition observed in certain veterans who have endured harrowing experiences during warfare. These individuals often grapple with the aftermath of traumatic events, which can manifest in various emotional and mental health challenges. The intensity of these feelings can be exacerbated by the memories of violence and loss encountered on the battlefield, leading to a profound impact on their overall well-being. The affected soldiers may grapple with unresolved internal conflicts that arise from their actions during combat, leading to feelings of survival guilt—an emotional burden stemming from the belief that they have survived while others did not. This condition can also manifest through a negative reinterpretation of combat experiences, where individuals may focus on perceived failures or moral dilemmas rather than the complexities of their circumstances.

 King Dutugemunu may have faced the burden of his actions, grappling with the loss of life and the destruction wrought during his campaigns. The weight of leadership, combined with the haunting memories of battle, could have led to a profound sense of isolation and melancholy, reflecting a struggle that transcends time and culture. The aftermath of his victories raises important questions about the psychological toll of warfare, particularly the phenomenon now recognized as post-combat depression.

After the Wijithapura battle, King Dutugemunu found himself engulfed in a profound emotional crisis, marked by an overwhelming sense of despair and sorrow. This turmoil was largely a result of the immense burdens and expectations that accompanied his role as a monarch, which were further exacerbated by the brutal realities of warfare. The relentless pressure of leadership, coupled with the aftermath of the battle, began to cloud his once-clear vision of purpose, plunging him into a period of deep reflection and melancholy. As he grappled with the weight of his responsibilities and the consequences of the conflict, his thoughts became increasingly heavy, leading him to question not only his decisions but also the very essence of his reign.

The challenges faced during the war undoubtedly left a lasting impression on King Dutugemunu throughout his life. The immense pressure and turmoil of conflict likely weighed heavily on his conscience, profoundly shaping his thoughts and actions. Obeyesekere emphasizes that this internal struggle may have influenced his leadership and decisions, as the memories of hardship and loss lingered, serving as a constant reminder of the sacrifices made and the resilience required to navigate the aftermath of such a tumultuous period.

 

War Trauma Experienced by King Dutugemunu and Emperor Ashoka

Emperor Ashoka, who ruled over India from 274 to 232 BC, renowned as one of the most significant Buddhist monarchs in Indian history, experienced profound remorse following his military campaign against Kalinga, a conflict that resulted in immense suffering and loss of life. This remorse, however, should be viewed as a reaction to the immediate consequences of his actions rather than the root cause of his militaristic approach. The deeper motivations behind Ashoka's initial decision to engage in warfare stemmed from a complex interplay of political ambition, the desire for territorial expansion, and the need to assert his authority over rival kingdoms. As he grappled with the moral implications of his conquest, Ashoka's transformation into a proponent of Buddhism marked a pivotal shift in his reign, leading him to advocate for peace, compassion, and the welfare of his subjects. This evolution not only reshaped his legacy but also had a lasting impact on the spread of Buddhist principles across Asia, illustrating how the burdens of leadership can catalyze profound personal and societal change.

Combat trauma can lead to significant alterations in an individual's personality, often manifesting in detrimental ways. However, research has revealed that there can also be beneficial transformations resulting from such experiences. This phenomenon, known as posttraumatic growth, allows individuals to derive meaning from their trauma, ultimately fostering personal development. Numerous case studies have documented instances of individuals who, after confronting their traumatic experiences, have managed to transcend their suffering and adopt a renewed outlook on life. These narratives illustrate how, despite the profound challenges posed by trauma, there exists the potential for resilience and a deeper understanding of oneself and the world.

There are many similarities between King Dutugemunu and Emperor Ashoka. King Dutugemunu and Emperor Ashoka both engaged in extensive military campaigns that marked significant periods in their respective histories. Initially, these leaders were driven by the ambition to expand their territories and assert their dominance over rival factions. However, as they witnessed the profound suffering and devastation wrought by warfare, their perspectives began to shift dramatically. The brutal realities of conflict, including the loss of countless lives and the destruction of communities, led them to a deep sense of disillusionment with the ideals of conquest and violence. This transformation in their outlook prompted both rulers to seek alternative paths, ultimately embracing principles of peace and compassion.

The spiritual journeys of Ashoka and Dutugemunu were profoundly shaped by the trials and tribulations they faced during times of war. Both leaders, emerging from the crucible of conflict, found themselves grappling with the moral and ethical implications of their actions on the battlefield. Both underwent a transformative experience following the brutal warfare.  This shift not only redefined their approach to governance but also instilled in them a deep sense of responsibility towards their subjects and the broader world. Through their respective journeys, both Ashoka and Dutugemunu exemplified how the adversities of war can catalyze significant personal growth and a commitment to higher ideals, ultimately shaping their legacies as benevolent rulers.

King Dutugemunu’s Consciousness

King Dutugemunu unified the entire island under his leadership, establishing a cohesive Sinhala-Buddhist identity that would shape the cultural and spiritual landscape of the region. His reign marked a significant turning point in the history of Sri Lanka, as he sought to consolidate power and promote the principles of Buddhism, which were integral to the Sinhala identity. His efforts to build temples and promote Buddhist teachings further solidified the connection between the monarchy and the faith, creating a legacy that would endure for centuries. This unification under a singular national identity laid the groundwork for the development of a distinct Sinhala-Buddhist civilization, influencing the island's social, political, and cultural dynamics for generations to come

The narrative of Dutugemunu's moral struggle in the Mahavamsa draws parallels with the internal turmoil experienced by Arjuna in the Mahabharata. In the epic tale, King Arjuna faces a profound ethical dilemma as he prepares to engage in battle against his own kin, leading to a significant conflict within his conscience.

King Dutugemunu initiated his military campaign with the noble intention of promoting Buddhism, framing the conflict as a righteous endeavor aimed at the spiritual upliftment of his people. However, as the war progressed, the initial ideals began to erode, giving way to a harsh reality marked by increasing violence and brutality. The fervor that once inspired his troops transformed into a relentless pursuit of victory, leading to inevitable suffering and devastation on both sides. The noble cause that had sparked the campaign became overshadowed by the grim consequences of warfare, revealing the complex interplay between ambition and morality in the pursuit of religious and nationalistic goals.

This viewpoint presents a disturbing rationale for the bloodshed that occurred under the guise of strengthening state authority, all while invoking the language of Buddhism. Such reasoning prompts critical ethical inquiries regarding the relationship between religious beliefs and political aspirations, indicating that the fundamental principle of the sanctity of life, which is central to Buddhism, was eclipsed by the relentless quest for power and dominance.

Obeyesekere contends that the moral integrity of King Dutugemunu was profoundly shaken by the atrocities that unfolded during the Battle of Vijithapura. When the king experienced turmoil within his conscience, the counsel offered by the Buddhist monks aimed at alleviating his mental distress was met with criticism from Obeyesekere. This guidance was deemed inconsistent with the core principles of Buddhism, leading to the conclusion that it represented a form of hypocritical deception masquerading as religious wisdom.

King Dutugemunu, known for his sagacity and deep understanding of the Buddha's teachings, would likely have found it challenging to accept such advice. Consequently, it is plausible to suggest that the king carried the weight of a guilty conscience throughout his life, perhaps even until his final moments. This internal struggle reflects the complexities of leadership and moral responsibility, particularly in the context of adhering to spiritual beliefs while navigating the burdens of power.

The circumstances surrounding the Crusades bear a striking resemblance to conflicts initiated under the guise of religious fervor. Initially framed as sacred missions, these campaigns gradually devolved into a brutal and savage struggle, leading to a significant erosion of ethical standards. The Crusades were marked by rampant violence, the slaughter of innocent civilians, and severe religious persecution, alongside acts of unimaginable cruelty, including instances of cannibalism. Such actions starkly contradicted the moral and religious values of the era. Although these endeavors were presented as holy quests, the underlying motivations often revolved around the pursuit of political dominance, financial enrichment, and personal accolades, which ultimately eclipsed any genuine spiritual intent. This shift not only contributed to a profound moral decline among the crusaders themselves but also sowed the seeds of enduring animosity between religious groups, fostering a legacy of hatred that would persist long after the battles had ceased.

The integration of Buddhism into military endeavors can be traced back to events preceding the Battle of Vijithapura. Historical accounts suggest that the Aryans' invasion of the Yakka tribes' settlements in prehistoric Sri Lanka, which resulted in significant violence and extermination, was often framed within a Buddhist narrative. This narrative perpetuates the notion that the Yakka tribes were ultimately subdued by the teachings of the Buddha, leading to their retreat into the island of Giri (mountainous regions, specifically Hunnasgiriya). Such interpretations not only reflect the complexities of religious influence on warfare but also highlight how historical events can be recontextualized to align with prevailing ideologies, thereby obscuring the harsh realities of conquest and subjugation.

As the tale unfolds, Buddha's initial recorded journey to Sri Lanka is traditionally believed to have occurred nine months after his enlightenment, specifically to the region of Mahiyangana, where he is said to have subdued the Yakkhas. This narrative, however, is intertwined with the historical use of Buddhism as a tool for political power, a practice that predates even King Dutugemunu. The account of the Buddha's conquest over the Yakka tribes and their subsequent banishment to the island of Giri can be interpreted as a form of propaganda, potentially serving to rationalize acts of violence and genocide. Despite the Buddha's teachings advocating for non-violence, the reality suggests that it was the Aryans who perpetrated the violence against the original inhabitants, the Yakka tribe, leading to their displacement from their ancestral lands. Such patterns of mass extermination echo historical events witnessed in places like Australia and North America. The figure of God Sumana Saman may represent an Aryan noble or warlord, and it is plausible that the narrative of the Buddha subduing the Yakkhas was constructed to legitimize the extensive invasion and slaughter that occurred during this period.

Obeyesekere explains that Dutugemunu's relationship with his father, King Kavantissa, was fraught with tension and played a significant role in shaping his character. As a young prince, Dutugemunu struggled to understand his father's military strategies and, in his frustration, wrongly labeled Kavantissa a coward. This conflict escalated to the point where Dutugemunu was unable to attend his father's funeral. The weight of these choices, along with the inner turmoil they created, left a lasting mark on Dutugemunu and deeply influenced the way he would lead in the future.

Obeyesekere’s central argument revolves around the idea that, in contrast to King Dutugemunu, who is depicted as having a robust moral framework, the monks of that period exhibited a notable deficiency in ethical accountability. This observation underscores a significant contrast between the king's principled governance and the moral laxity of the spiritual leaders of his time. While Dutugemunu is characterized by a deep commitment to duty and righteousness, the monks appear to fall short of these ideals. This critique prompts critical inquiries into the responsibilities of religious figures within society and their role in maintaining moral integrity, especially during an era when their influence was paramount. Moreover, Obeyesekere encourages a thorough exploration of the ethical dynamics of that historical period, inviting reflections on the expectations that society places on both secular and religious leaders.

Obeyesekere portrays King Dutugemunu as a complex individual whose moral challenges are intricately linked to his identities as a son, brother, husband, and father, rather than simply depicting him as a triumphant warrior. He highlights the profound implications of Dutugemunu's decision to wage war against Elara, a moment that becomes a turning point in the monarch's life and serves to illustrate the heavy burden of his conscience. In the aftermath of this act, Dutugemunu's initiatives to foster peace, such as erecting a monument in memory of his vanquished foe, further illuminate his internal struggles and the tension between his responsibilities as a leader and his personal moral beliefs. Obeyesekere interprets these internal conflicts as reflective of a larger societal imperative for cultivating a culture that encourages a peaceful conscience among all individuals, extending beyond those who hold positions of authority.

The Mahavamsa briefly references the duel between Dutugemunu and Elara, yet it is evident that the confrontation was both intense and pivotal. While some interpretations suggest a clash between youth and age, this oversimplification overlooks the complexities of their encounter. Dutugemunu, brimming with youthful vigor, faced Elara, a seasoned warrior whose extensive experience in combat made him a formidable opponent. The battle was not a swift affair; it unfolded over an extended period, marked by fierce exchanges and strategic maneuvers. Ultimately, Elara sustained fatal wounds during the conflict, leading to his demise. It is reasonable to infer that Dutugemunu also endured injuries, though the Mahavamsa provides scant details regarding the specifics of their physical tolls. This lack of elaboration leaves much to the imagination, inviting further exploration into the nuances of this historic confrontation.

Dutugemunu may have harbored a perception of his father as lacking courage, while simultaneously viewing Elara as a valiant adversary. This complex dynamic could suggest that, on a subconscious level, Dutugemunu recognized a paternal archetype in Elara, despite their status as enemies. Such an identification might have led him to grapple with conflicting emotions regarding his father’s legacy and his own sense of honor. Consequently, it is plausible to consider that this internal struggle influenced his decision to erect a monument in Elara's memory and to pay homage to him, even after having defeated him in battle. This act of commemoration could reflect a deeper acknowledgment of Elara's nobility and valor, which resonated with Dutugemunu's own ideals, thereby complicating the narrative of enmity between them.

Obeyesekere reflects on Dutugemunu's powerful testimony, highlighting the deep influence of historical invasions on the minds of Sri Lankans, especially since the Battle of Vijithapura. This historical background is essential for understanding the communal tensions that erupted during the 1983 riots, where the attackers invoked Dutugemunu's legacy, portraying their violence as a continuation of his fight. They saw the conflict between Dutugemunu and Elara not just as a historical event but as a symbolic struggle against the Tamil community, thus twisting an important part of Sri Lanka's history to justify their actions. This distortion of history shows how stories can be reshaped to serve current goals, ultimately deepening societal divisions and fueling ongoing cycles of violence.

Gananath Obeyesekere offers a profound examination of the intricate relationship between historical accounts and the moral tenets of Buddhism, particularly in relation to King Dutugemunu. The author investigates how the king's deeds, often celebrated as heroic and virtuous, are deeply intertwined with the fundamental Buddhist values of compassion and non-violence. Through a careful analysis of the historical backdrop and the subsequent mythologization surrounding King Dutugemunu. Obeyesekere uncovers how these narratives not only elevate the king's status but also mirror the evolving ethical consciousness of the Buddhist community. This inquiry prompts essential reflections on the essence of morality within Buddhist philosophy, the influence of historical figures on the formation of religious identity, and the mechanisms through which cultural memory is shaped and perpetuated through storytelling. Ultimately, Obeyesekere's exploration encourages readers to reassess the significance of these narratives in light of modern interpretations of Buddhist ethics and the enduring legacy of influential figures like King Dutugemunu.