The Sinhabahu Myth through the eyes of Prof. Gananath Obeyesekere

 

by Dr Ruwan M Jayatunge M.D. PhD 

  

The rich tapestry of Sri Lanka's cultural heritage is intricately woven with mythology and legends, which serve as a profound reflection of the island's history and identity. These narratives, passed down through generations, encompass a diverse array of tales that highlight the values, beliefs, and traditions of the Sri Lankan people.  The mythological tale of Sinhabahu serves as a foundational narrative for the Sinhala nation, intricately weaving together themes of identity, heritage, and cultural pride.

Prof. Gananath Obeyesekere argues that the myth of Sinhabahu serves as a quintessential representation of the Sri Lankan Oedipus narrative. In his notable work, "The Work of Culture: Symbolic Transformation in Psychoanalysis and Anthropology," Prof. Obeyesekere highlights a particularly striking aspect of the Sinhabahu myth: the complete absence of any expressions of remorse or ethical dilemmas regarding the act of patricide. This lack of moral conflict sets the myth apart, suggesting a cultural framework in which such actions are not only accepted but perhaps even normalized, thereby inviting deeper exploration into the implications of familial relationships and societal values within the context of Sri Lankan folklore.

 

Sinhabahu Narrative

The myth of Sinhabahu narrates the legendary beginnings of the Sinhala people, an ethnic group indigenous to Sri Lanka. The Sinhalese communicate in Sinhala, an Indo-Aryan language (Lewis, 2009), and the term "Sinhala" itself translates to "lion people." Central to this mythology is the tale of Princess Suppadevi from the Vanga Kingdom (situated in the eastern region of the Indian Subcontinent) who was abducted by a fierce lion and taken into the wilderness. During her time in captivity, she gave birth to twins: a son named Sinhabahu, which means "hands like a lion's paws," and a daughter named Sinha Seevali. The lion confined the family in a cave, sealing the entrance with a massive rock.

At the age of sixteen, Sinhabahu managed to lift the stone and escape with his mother and sister to the Lala Kingdom, evading their captor. Upon discovering their flight, the enraged lion rampaged through nearby villages in search of the princess and her children, prompting the terrified villagers to implore their king for assistance. The king then tasked Sinhabahu with confronting the lion, leading the young hero to track down and slay the beast with a lethal arrow. This act of bravery earned Sinhabahu the admiration of the people, who hailed him as a hero.

Prince Sinhabahu established a city known as Sinhapura, which translates to "The Lion City." In a significant familial union, he married his sister, Sinha Seevali, and together they welcomed a son named Vijaya. The chronicles of the Mahawansa, a revered historical text, identify Prince Vijaya as the first documented monarch of Sri Lanka, reigning from 543 BC to 505 BC. His ascension marked a pivotal moment in the island's history, laying the foundation for a lineage that would shape the cultural and political landscape of Sri Lanka for centuries to come. The legacy of Sinhapura and its royal inhabitants continues to resonate in the annals of Sri Lankan heritage, symbolizing the intertwining of myth and history in the formation of a nation.

The tale of Sinhabahu has been passed down through generations, embodying the essence of oral tradition. These narratives often depict the evolution of their heroes through a recurring motif of exile and return, which places them in circumstances that continually test their strength and determination (Scot, 1990). Within these stories, archetypes emerge in various forms, including typical characters, plotlines, imagery, and overarching themes, creating a rich tapestry for analysis. One of the most prevalent archetypes found across cultures is that of the hero and the hero's journey, a narrative framework that resonates universally. This journey not only highlights the trials faced by the hero but also reflects the values and beliefs of the culture from which the story originates, making it a vital component of storytelling across different societies.

 

Mythical Stories and Culture

Obeyesekere probes into the rich tapestry of traditional folk tales, myths, and narratives that characterize the cultural heritage of Sri Lanka, revealing a world imbued with both myth and enigma. As an anthropologist, he meticulously examines the stories that have been transmitted through generations, recognizing their significance not only as entertainment but also as vessels of cultural identity and collective memory. His analysis reveals underlying sociological and psychological themes, suggesting that these folk narratives reflect societal values, beliefs, and human experiences. Through this lens, Obeyesekere highlights the intricate connections between folklore and the social fabric of Sri Lankan life, illustrating how these tales encapsulate the complexities of human nature and community dynamics.

The tale of Sinhabahu is often regarded as a work of mythology, steeped in the rich traditions and cultural narratives of its origins. A mythical story is a traditional narrative that often carries deep symbolic meaning, serving to illuminate the beliefs, historical events, and cultural practices of a particular society. These tales frequently delve into the origins of the world, the exploits of legendary heroes, and the actions of deities, providing insight into the values and moral lessons that shape a community's identity. Through rich imagery and allegorical elements, mythical stories not only entertain but also educate, preserving the collective memory and wisdom of a culture for generations. They act as a bridge between the past and present, allowing individuals to connect with their heritage while exploring universal themes of existence, morality, and the human experience.

Obeyesekere investigates the intricate essence of traditional folk tales, offering a comprehensive examination of their underlying themes and motifs. In his analysis, he not only unravels the narrative structures and cultural significance of these stories but also contextualizes them within their historical and sociological frameworks. By doing so, he provides readers with a deeper understanding of how these tales reflect the values, beliefs, and social dynamics of the communities from which they originate. This multifaceted approach allows for a richer appreciation of the folk tales, highlighting their role as both artistic expressions and vital components of cultural heritage.

 

Mythical Narratives and the Collective Unconscious

The mythical narrative of Sinhabahu explores universal human experiences and the collective psyche and serves as a profound allegory for the timeless conflict between primal instincts and the structures of civilization. Mythical narratives such as Sinhabahu are deeply connected to the collective unconscious. These mythical narratives posit a profound, universal aspect of the human psyche that is shared among all individuals.

Archetypes connected with the legend of Sinhabahu include the Hero (protagonist symbolic idol Sinhabahu), the Shadow (repressed, or hidden, darker aspects of the psyche), and the Father vs. Son, Authority vs. Rebellion, and themes of the Oedipus complex and the tension between Instinct vs. Civilization. 

 

The presence of these archetypes elucidates the striking similarities found in mythological themes and motifs across diverse societies, suggesting a common psychological heritage. These archetypes resonate deeply within the human experience. These motifs not only influence our perceptions and emotions but also guide our behaviors, providing a vital framework for comprehending and integrating the more profound dimensions of the human psyche.

Carl Jung's exploration revealed that these universal patterns transcend cultural and historical boundaries, leading him to propose that a segment of the human mind contains a collective unconscious, akin to a shared, primal memory that connects all members of the human race. Numerous mythological tales, such as Sinhabahu, exemplify this phenomenon, illustrating how ancient cultures have woven similar narratives that resonate with the collective human experience. It's unclear if Carl Jung was familiar with the Sinhabahu legend itself; though there is no direct evidence that he wrote about it, his theories are applied to it by later Sri Lankan scholars like Obeyesekere.

  

The Lion as a Totem Animal

The lion, often referred to as a beast, serves as the father of Prince Sinhabahu, who famously abducted his mother from her clan. This lion can be interpreted as a metaphor for a man of extraordinary strength or even as a figure with a lion-like visage, particularly relevant in the context of Hansen's disease, where individuals may exhibit a leonine appearance.

The lion has become a prominent totem for the people of Sri Lanka, particularly within the Sinhalese community, largely inspired by the legendary narrative of Sinhabahu. This majestic animal carries deep symbolic meaning for Sri Lankans, serving as a powerful emblem that encapsulates their identity, values, and cultural heritage.

The lion not only signifies a connection to the past but also acts as a guiding force, reflecting the community's relationship with nature and the spiritual world. Through various forms of expression, including rituals, storytelling, and art, the lion has woven itself into the fabric of societal traditions, strengthening communal ties and fostering a sense of belonging that transcends generations. As a totem, the lion embodies the essence of leadership, strength, and courage, inspiring individuals to embrace resilience and self-confidence. This revered creature symbolizes an inner fortitude that encourages people to face challenges head-on, promoting active engagement and self-expression within the community. The lion's role as a spiritual guide often signifies a pivotal moment in personal growth, marking the beginning of a transformative journey that aligns with the values and aspirations of the Sinhalese people.

The lineage of Prince Sinhabahu, traced back to a lion, symbolizes the embodiment of masculine power and vigor. Such symbolic representations are deeply rooted in social, ideological, and political constructs, as noted by Miller (2011), which is why the lion has come to represent the 'Sinhala' race. Across various cultures, lions are revered for their innate qualities of strength, nobility, and bravery, traits that resonate universally. Their status as apex predators positions them as protectors against malevolence, while their majestic presence conveys dignity, authority, and leadership. This widespread admiration has led to their incorporation into religious practices, mythological narratives, heraldic traditions, and use as guardians in both ancient and contemporary societies.

Carl Jung posited that animals often symbolize instinctual drives, with the lion serving as an archetype for the Sinhalese people. These instinctual drives are the carriers of the collective unconscious's symbolic patterns and represent primal energies, and they have become a driving force in civilization.

As discussed by Jutta von Buchholtz (2000) at the core of any symbol lies a vital energy, whether instinctual or archetypal, often referred to as libido or anima.  The anima, in particular, is a specific archetype representing the feminine aspect within the male psyche.

As we can see, Sinhabahu embodied a multifaceted biopsychosocial dynamic, reflecting a rich interplay of biological, psychological, and social influences that shaped his character. Within his male psyche, there existed an unconscious feminine dimension, which contributed to his emotional depth and complexity. This aspect manifested in various traits, including a profound sense of compassion, an innate receptivity to the feelings of others, and a strong intuition that guided his interactions.

The lion is often perceived as a symbol of strength and power, yet it also embodies significant feminine qualities, particularly through the representation of the lioness. The lioness is emblematic of nurturing instincts, showcasing a fierce dedication to protecting her young and her pride. This female" totem has aspects of the divine feminine. 

 

The Lion—the Emblem of Sinhalese Identity

The lion has emerged as a powerful symbol of Sinhalese identity, deeply rooted in ancient folklore and its association with the island's inaugural monarch, Prince Vijaya. This connection is primarily derived from the Sinhabahu legend, which narrates the tale of Sinhabahu, a lion-man who is said to be the progenitor of the Sinhalese people. According to this legend, Sinhabahu, born of a lion and a human princess, embodies strength, courage, and nobility, traits that resonate with the Sinhalese culture. As Prince Vijaya, a descendant of Sinhabahu, established his reign in Sri Lanka, the lion became an enduring emblem of the Sinhalese heritage, representing not only royal lineage but also the resilience and identity of the Sinhalese people throughout history. This rich tapestry of myth and history has solidified the lion's status as a national symbol, reflecting the pride and unity of the Sinhalese community.

The lion has long served as a powerful emblem of Sinhalese identity, much like the peacock represented the Mauryas, the fish symbolized the Pandyas, and the tiger stood for the Cholas. This majestic creature is deeply woven into the historical narrative of Sri Lanka, with King Dutugemunu famously carrying a lion flag during his legendary battle against Elara, a moment immortalized in a painting at the Dambulla temple from the Kandyan period. Furthermore, the Sinhalese kings of Anuradhapura minted coins adorned with the lion, reinforcing its significance in their reign. Additionally, King Kashyapa's creation of a colossal lion statue at Sigiriya exemplifies the lion's enduring status as a national symbol, reflecting the pride and cultural heritage of the Sinhalese people throughout the ages.

 

Bestiality Narrated in the Sinhabahu Story

The Sinhabahu legend contains complex themes, including the controversial subject of bestiality.  Bestiality, defined as sexual intercourse between humans and animals, raises significant ethical, legal, and moral concerns across various societies. This practice is often viewed as taboo.

This ancient narrative, rooted in the cultural and historical context of its origin, presents a tale that intertwines human and animal characteristics, ultimately exploring the boundaries of morality and nature. Sinhabahu, a character born from a union between a lion and a human, symbolizes the intersection of the primal instincts of the animal kingdom with the rationality of humanity. The story raises profound questions about identity, lineage, and the consequences of transgressing natural laws.

In the tale of Sinhabahu, the narrative unfolds with Princess Suppadevi, who is journeying to Magadha as part of a caravan. During this voyage, an unexpected and ferocious lion attacks the caravan, leading to the abduction of Suppadevi. In a twist of fate, she becomes the mate of the lion, resulting in the birth of two remarkable offspring: Sinhabahu and Sinhasivali. The historian chronicles this extraordinary event, emphasizing the unique lineage of Sinhabahu and Sinhasivali as the progeny of a human woman and a lion, thus intertwining the realms of the natural and the mythical. This story not only highlights the themes of transformation and identity but also explores the complexities of human-animal relationships within the context of ancient narratives.

Throughout history, numerous cultures have woven tales that explore the theme of bestiality, reflecting a complex interplay between human desires and societal taboos. These narratives often serve as cautionary tales, illustrating the consequences of transgressing natural boundaries and the moral dilemmas associated with such acts.

The cultural implications of bestiality differ significantly across various societies, encompassing a wide range of historical, mythological, and ritualistic contexts. In some cultures, it is intertwined with specific rites or considered a forbidden practice, while in others, it appears in modern media portrayals that often mirror societal fears or notions of moral transgression. Although bestiality is frequently regarded as a taboo subject in many parts of the world, there are historical instances where it has been recognized as a form of sexual expression. The ancient Egyptian religious customs included elements that could be interpreted as bestiality, illustrating its varied significance throughout history. 

In mythology, the theme of bestiality carries profound cultural implications that extend beyond mere taboo. It serves to delineate the distinctions between human and divine realms, often reflecting societal anxieties surrounding sexuality and the institution of marriage. These narratives frequently delve into the complexities of desire, illustrating how the intertwining of human and animalistic traits can symbolize deeper connections to the natural world. Furthermore, bestiality in myth acts as a powerful metaphor for the primal forces of power and lust, revealing the underlying tensions between civilization and the wild. Through these stories, cultures grapple with their fears and fascinations, using the motif of bestiality to explore the boundaries of morality and the essence of human nature itself.

As Sinhabahu navigates his existence, the myth serves as a reflection on the darker aspects of desire and the societal implications of such unions, prompting audiences to confront their own perceptions of normalcy and taboo. Through its vivid imagery and allegorical depth, the myth invites a critical examination of the human condition and the often-blurred lines between civilization and the wild.

 

 Sinhabahu and the Oedipus Complex

The Oedipus complex emerges during Freud's phallic stage of development, which typically occurs between the ages of three and six. During this critical period, a young boy begins to experience unconscious feelings of attraction towards his mother, while simultaneously perceiving his father as a competitor for her affection. This internal conflict often leads to intense emotions such as jealousy and anger, as well as a profound fear of castration, which represents the boy's anxiety regarding potential retribution from his father. According to psychoanalytic theory, resolving these complex feelings is essential for forming a robust psychological identity and developing the superego. This resolution is achieved when the child identifies with the father figure, thereby suppressing his desires for the mother and internalizing paternal values, which ultimately contributes to a healthier psychological framework as he matures.

The term "Sri Lankan Oedipus" refers to the legend of Sinhabahu, a mythical figure credited with founding the Sinhala people, and it draws intriguing parallels to the Greek myth of Oedipus. Both narratives revolve around a central character who unwittingly engages in patricide and incest, resulting in profound consequences that shape their respective cultures. In Sinhabahu's story, this tragic fate is symbolized through a totemic relationship with a lion, which serves as a powerful emblem of national identity and heritage. Furthermore, the influence of Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex" is evident in Sri Lanka, where adaptations and performances of the classic play have been integrated into the local cultural landscape. This connection not only highlights the shared themes of fate and familial conflict but also underscores the enduring impact of these myths on the formation of national narratives and theatrical traditions in Sri Lanka.

Dr. Wijaya Dissanayaka, a distinguished consultant psychiatrist and respected lecturer, posits that many narratives center around the theme of a hero vanquishing a formidable beast or dragon. This recurring motif, he argues, serves as a profound representation of the Oedipal conflict, a concept rooted in psychoanalytic theory. The act of slaying the dragon can be interpreted as a symbolic confrontation with paternal authority, where the hero's triumph signifies a resolution of inner turmoil and the quest for identity. Through this lens, these stories not only entertain but also delve into the complexities of human psychology, reflecting the struggles individuals face in reconciling their desires and familial relationships.

In the narrative of Sinhabahu, parallels can be drawn to the classic tale of Oedipus, particularly in the tragic act of patricide, as Sinhabahu also kills his father. However, a significant divergence exists in their respective stories; unlike Oedipus, who unwittingly marries his mother, Sinhabahu chooses to marry his sister instead. This crucial difference highlights the unique aspects of the Sinhabahu tale, positioning it as a semi-Oedipal narrative. While both stories explore themes of fate, familial conflict, and the consequences of one's actions, the resolution in Sinhabahu's story diverges from the archetypal tragedy of Oedipus, offering a distinct interpretation of similar motifs within the realm of mythological storytelling.

Buddhist philosophy, particularly as illustrated in the narrative of the Thayo Darma Jātakaya encompasses profound themes that parallel the Oedipus complex, including elements such as parental abandonment, the act of patricide, and the intense rivalry for parental affection. The Thayo Darma Jātakaya highlights a son's tumultuous quest to overthrow his father and ascend to the throne.

In this narrative, the father-king embodies a figure who actively stifles the growth of his male heirs, preventing them from reaching maturity and posing a challenge to his authority. However, one son manages to evade this oppressive fate, fueled by a burgeoning animosity towards his father, which is secretly nurtured by his mother’s support. This complex relationship culminates in the son’s violent act of patricide, as he seeks to seize not only the throne but also the companionship of women associated with his father. The story intricately weaves together the fundamental aspects of the Oedipus complex, including the intense conflict between father and son, the rivalry for maternal affection, and the son’s relentless pursuit of power, thereby offering a profound exploration of familial dynamics and the darker facets of ambition.

 

Patricide in the Sinhabahu Story

Prince Sinhabahu, a figure of both valor and tragedy, found himself in a harrowing situation that would forever alter the course of his life. Sinhabahu confronted his father. The confrontation culminated in a dramatic and fateful encounter, where the prince, fueled by a mix of courage and sorrow, ultimately took the life of Sinha. Finally, he had to kill his own father. He killed the totem animal. 

The act of Sinhabahu killing his father carries profound significance within the narrative, symbolizing a complex interplay of destiny, power, and familial conflict. The act itself can be interpreted as a tragic assertion of autonomy, where Sinhabahu, in a desperate bid to escape the shadow of paternal authority, commits an irreversible act that alters the course of his life and the lives of those around him.

Freud defines patricide as the act of killing one's father, which he interprets as a manifestation of the unconscious desire to remove the paternal rival within the framework of the Oedipus complex. He further theorizes that this concept extends beyond individual psychology to encompass a collective phenomenon, wherein a group of brothers collectively murders the "primal father" of a primitive horde. This act, according to Freud, serves as a foundational moment in the development of civilization, morality, religion, and social structures. The repercussions of such a primal act lead to feelings of collective guilt among the brothers, which in turn fosters the creation of the totem—a symbolic representation of the slain father that embodies both reverence and remorse. This intricate interplay of familial dynamics and societal evolution underscores Freud's belief in the profound psychological underpinnings of human culture and social organization.

Patricide, defined as the act of killing one's father, transcends mere literal interpretation and instead serves as a profound symbolic archetype within the collective unconscious. This concept, introduced by Carl Jung, refers to a deep-seated psychological framework that is universally shared among humanity, encompassing archetypes that reflect common human experiences and conflicts. In this context, patricide symbolizes the struggle against paternal authority, the rejection of established traditions, and the dynamic tension between generations, where the younger generation seeks to challenge and ultimately supplant the older one. This archetype is vividly illustrated in various myths and narratives across different cultures, highlighting a fundamental human conflict that resonates through time and space, revealing the complexities of familial relationships and societal evolution.

Freud proposed a theory centered around the concept of a primitive horde, characterized by an all-powerful father figure. This dynamic culminates in the fratricidal act of the brothers who conspire to kill their father, an event that subsequently paves the way for the emergence of the totemic clan. This theoretical framework explores the psychological conditions that allow such thoughts to manifest.

Sinhabahu's decision to kill his father stemmed from a series of tragic events that unfolded after he, his mother, and his sister fled from the lion's den. Following their escape, the lion became frantic and made desperate attempts to find his missing wife and children, causing havoc in the villages and bringing widespread fear and distress among the people.

In response to the chaos, the king, despite having a formidable army at his disposal, found himself unable to capture the rampaging lion, prompting him to offer a substantial reward to anyone who could successfully tame the beast. Although Sinhabahu's mother, Suppa Devi, attempted to dissuade him from taking on this perilous task, he secretly approached the king and accepted the challenge. However, unlike the king's intention to tame the lion, Sinhabahu harbored a different motive; armed with an arrow, he ventured into the forest with the intent to kill the lion. Upon reaching the lion's den, the lion recognized his son, and despite the circumstances, he refrained from attacking Sinhabahu, driven by a deep-seated love for him. Seizing this moment of hesitation, Sinhabahu shot an arrow at his father's head, ultimately piercing it and bringing about the lion's death.

The motivations behind Sinhabahu's decision to kill his father, the lion, prompt a complex exploration of familial dynamics and personal ambition. Despite possessing the remarkable ability to subdue the lion without inflicting fatal harm, Sinhabahu chose a path of violence, raising questions about his underlying feelings toward his father. Was there an element of resentment or hatred that drove him to commit such an act? It is possible that he perceived his father not merely as a parent but as a formidable rival, one whose dominance he sought to challenge and ultimately overthrow. This desire to assert his own strength and independence could have been a significant factor in his actions, suggesting a deeper psychological struggle between loyalty and the need for self-assertion. The act of killing his father may symbolize a broader quest for power and identity, reflecting the intricate interplay of love, rivalry, and the quest for autonomy that often characterizes complex familial relationships.

 

Killing of the Totem Animal

Sinhabahu made a fateful decision to eliminate the totem animal that held significant cultural and spiritual importance to his community. This totem, revered for its symbolic representation of strength and protection, was not merely an animal but a vital part of the tribe's identity and heritage.

Sinhabahu embarked on a perilous journey into the heart of the wilderness. After a tense and arduous pursuit, Sinhabahu finally confronted the formidable creature, his heart pounding with determination. With a steady hand and unwavering focus, he released a well-aimed arrow that struck true, bringing the ferocious lion to a swift end. Hence, he killed the totem animal. Within the narrative, it symbolizes a complex interplay of destiny, power, and familial conflict.

Killing a totem animal is regarded as a serious breach of the cultural agreement between individuals and the natural world, as well as a failure to uphold one's obligations to their clan and community. It is a profound violation of a sacred taboo, which can result in dire spiritual repercussions.

Dr. Vamik Volkan, Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Virginia, luminously writes on the killing of the totem animal, or the patricide, thus. 

Long ago, primitive people lived in small tribes led by despotic leaders. With his unlimited power, the leader or father considered all the women of the tribe his exclusive property. If the young men of the tribe, or sons, expressed jealousy, they were killed, castrated, or excommunicated. Their fate unbearable, the young men joined forces, killed the father, and ate him. But the father’s influence would not disappear. In death he became more powerful. Haunted by the ghost of their father, the sons replaced him with a horrible and strong animal, a totem. It absorbed the sons’ ambivalence—the simultaneous hate and love they were experiencing for their dead father. Since the ghost of their father lived in the totem, however, the sons were still not free of his influence, and their hate for him, as well as their love for him, continued. Totemism is thus both a religious and a social system.” (Hence, the totem animal was used to maintain two useful prohibitions—one against killing the totem animal (patricide) and the other against having sexual relations with women of the same totem or clan (incest).(Totem and Taboo in Romania: A Psychopolitical Diagnosis—Dr. Vamik Volkan) 

However, the concept of "killing one's spirit animal" has emerged in contemporary discourse as a metaphor for personal transformation, suggesting that such an act, whether literal or figurative, can serve as a powerful catalyst for addressing and confronting deeper spiritual or personal challenges. This duality highlights the complexity of the relationship between individuals and their totem animals, where the act of killing can simultaneously represent a violation of sacred bonds and an opportunity for profound self-reflection and growth.

Patricide Described in the Mahabharata and in the Other Ancient Mythical Stories

The ancient Indian epic Mahabharata and the Sri Lankan myth of Sinhabahu exhibit no recorded parallels in their narratives or themes. The Mahabharata is a monumental text that chronicles the intense dynastic struggle between two factions, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, ultimately leading to the climactic and devastating Battle of Kurukshetra. This epic not only explores the complexities of duty, righteousness, and moral dilemmas faced by its characters but also delves into the broader implications of war and its consequences on society.

In contrast, the Sinhabahu myth serves as a foundational story for the Sinhala people, detailing the legendary origins of their nation through the tale of a princess who unites with a lion, resulting in the birth of twin sons. This narrative emphasizes themes of identity, lineage, and the intertwining of human and animal realms, reflecting the cultural and historical significance of the Sinhala heritage. Thus, while both texts are rich in their respective cultural contexts, they remain distinct in their storytelling and thematic focus.

The narratives found in both the Mahabharata and the Sinhabahu tales prominently feature the theme of parricide, a grave act that carries profound moral and ethical implications.

In the epic narrative of the Mahabharata, one of the most poignant instances of patricide unfolds when Babruvahana, unaware of his true lineage, fatally wounds his father, Arjuna, with an arrow. This tragic event occurs during the Ashwamedha Yagna, a significant ritual that symbolizes royal authority and sovereignty. The backdrop of this act is steeped in a curse laid upon Arjuna by the river goddess Ganga, who sought retribution for the death of her son, Bhishma, at the hands of Arjuna. Ganga's curse foretold that Arjuna would meet his end at the hands of his own offspring, a fate that Babruvahana unwittingly fulfills in a moment of conflict.

Similarly, the Sinhabahu story explores the consequences of such actions, where the protagonist's struggle against his lineage and the resulting violence against his father highlight the tragic dimensions of duty, honor, and the quest for power.

These narratives not only serve as cautionary tales but also delve into the psychological turmoil faced by characters who grapple with their identities and the weight of their actions, ultimately reflecting on the broader themes of fate, justice, and the moral dilemmas inherent in human relationships.

Patricide emerges as a prominent motif in ancient epics, particularly within the realm of Greek mythology, where it is vividly illustrated through the acts of Cronus, who castrated his father Uranus, and the tragic tale of Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his own father. These narratives delve into the theme of the overthrow of established orders by the younger generation, often fueled by a relentless quest for power or an inescapable fate.

Additionally, the Babylonian epic Enûma Elish presents a parallel instance with the god Ea slaying his father Apsu, while in Hurrian mythology, Teshub defeats Kumarbi, both of which signify a recurring divine cycle of conflict and the generational struggle for supremacy. Such stories not only reflect the complexities of familial relationships but also serve as allegories for the broader societal transitions and the inevitable clash between the old and the new.

 

Parricides Recorded in Ancient Sri Lankan History

The influence of Sinhabahu on the theme of parricide is profound and multifaceted, reflecting deep cultural and psychological undercurrents within the narrative. The earliest documented case of parricide in ancient Sri Lankan history involves King Kashyapa (also known as Kassapa), who infamously killed his father, King Dathusena, in a bid to usurp the throne during the 5th century CE.

Historical narratives, including the accounts from Portuguese sources such as De Queros, suggest that King Seethawaka Rajasinghe (reigned from approximately 1581 to 1592 AD) may have murdered his father, King Mayadunne. This claim, however, remains a subject of considerable debate among historians. The allegation of patricide is often associated with a broader conflict involving Buddhist monks, which subsequently led to Rajasinghe's notable conversion to Hinduism. This shift in religious allegiance is seen as a significant turning point in his reign, reflecting the complex interplay of power, faith, and familial loyalty during a tumultuous period in Sri Lankan history. The implications of these events continue to resonate in discussions about the political and religious dynamics of the time.

 

Sinhabahu and the Laius Syndrome

The Laius Syndrome is a conceptual framework primarily derived from Silke-Maria Weineck's (Professor of German and comparative literature at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor) analysis in "The Laius Syndrome, or the Ends of Political Fatherhood." This term encapsulates the intricate and often detrimental dynamics between a father and his son, drawing inspiration from the mythological narrative of King Laius within the Oedipus mythos. In this context, the father figure is emblematic of various themes, including the exertion of political authority, the propensity for violence, the obsessive desire to dictate one's lineage, and the tragic inevitability of fate. These elements converge to illustrate a poignant narrative where the father's attempts to control his destiny ultimately culminate in his own downfall at the hands of his son. Notably, Laius Syndrome shares thematic parallels with the Sinhabahu myth, further enriching the discourse on paternal relationships and the tragic consequences of power and control.

 

Incest in the Sinhabahu Story

The concept of incest is notably illustrated in ancient Sri Lankan folklore through the tale of Sinhabahu, a significant legend that recounts the origins of the Sinhala people. According to this narrative, Prince Sinhabahu, who is credited with establishing the Sinhala lineage, entered into a union with his sister, Sinha Seewali. This controversial marriage resulted in the birth of their son, Prince Vijaya, who would go on to become the first king of Sri Lanka.

The legend not only highlights the complexities of familial relationships in the context of royal lineage but also serves as a foundational myth that shapes the cultural identity of the Sinhala people. Through this story, themes of power, destiny, and the intertwining of familial bonds are explored, reflecting the intricate tapestry of Sri Lankan history and mythology.

The legend of Sinhabahu narrates the tale of a prince who, in a controversial act, wed his own sister, Sinha Seewali, thereby engaging in incestuous relations. This narrative raises intriguing questions about the social norms and familial structures of ancient societies.

Sontakke (2017) suggests that in prehistoric times, there were likely no prohibitions against mating among close relatives, indicating a vastly different understanding of kinship and marriage compared to contemporary standards. Such practices may have been influenced by various factors, including the need to preserve lineage, consolidate power, or ensure the continuation of certain bloodlines. This historical context invites further exploration into the evolution of societal norms surrounding incest and the implications these legends have on our understanding of ancient cultures.

Greek mythology often explores the origins of various cultural deities, including those associated with music and dance, through narratives of incestuous relationships among divine figures. For instance, the siblings Shu and Tefnut gave rise to Geb and Nut, who themselves were a brother-sister duo that eventually entered into marriage. This pattern of familial unions continues with their grandson Horus, who, in a strikingly complex twist of mythology, chose his mother, Isis, as his consort. This relationship not only highlights the intricate web of connections among the gods but also symbolizes the intertwining of maternal and romantic bonds within the divine narrative, reflecting the multifaceted nature of love and power in ancient Greek culture.

For over three millennia, incestuous unions among siblings and other closely related individuals were a prevalent cultural norm among the ancient Egyptian pharaohs, primarily aimed at safeguarding the purity of the royal bloodline and reinforcing the divine status attributed to the king. This practice ensured that power and wealth remained concentrated within the royal family, thereby maintaining a sense of continuity and stability in governance.

However, the implications of such marriages were dire, as they significantly increased the risk of genetic disorders, resulting in various health complications and physical deformities among the offspring of these unions. A notable example of this is Pharaoh Tutankhamun, whose remains exhibited several signs of genetic abnormalities, underscoring the detrimental effects of these incestuous practices on the health of the royal lineage.

The incest taboo represents a nearly universal cultural norm that forbids sexual relationships among close blood relatives, although its interpretation and enforcement can differ significantly from one society to another. While the majority of cultures uphold this prohibition, the specific relationships deemed unacceptable can vary widely; for instance, some societies may allow marriages between certain cousins, while others strictly prohibit such unions. Additionally, various cultural myths, such as those depicting ancestral siblings who survive cataclysmic events like floods and subsequently repopulate the earth, illustrate the intricate and often contradictory nature of incest within different cultural frameworks. These narratives not only reflect the complexities surrounding familial relationships but also reveal how cultural beliefs shape the understanding and acceptance of incestuous relationships in diverse contexts.

 

Sinhabahu- the Archetypal Hero

The figure of Sinhabahu exemplifies the archetypal hero, a character type that transcends cultural boundaries and appears in narratives worldwide. This hero embarks on a transformative journey, confronting various challenges that ultimately lead to personal growth and the achievement of significant goals, which often resonate deeply within their society. Central to this archetype is the Hero's Journey, or monomyth, a narrative framework that encompasses a departure from the familiar world, a series of trials and initiatory experiences, and a return enriched with newfound wisdom or gifts intended for the community. Essential traits of this archetypal hero include unwavering courage, selflessness, a strong moral compass, and a readiness to make sacrifices for the greater good. Through these qualities, Sinhabahu not only navigates his own path but also leaves a lasting impact on those around him, embodying the timeless essence of heroism that inspires and uplifts.

His triumph over the lion firmly established him as the quintessential hero, a notion thoroughly examined by Joseph Campbell in his seminal work, "The Hero with a Thousand Faces" (1968). In this influential text, Campbell articulates the essence of a hero as someone who ventures beyond the confines of the mundane world to undertake a profound and transformative journey. Throughout this odyssey, the hero confronts various challenges and personal fears, ultimately striving to fulfill a quest that not only tests their mettle but also serves to uplift and benefit their community. This archetypal narrative underscores the hero's role as a catalyst for change, illustrating how their extraordinary experiences resonate with universal themes of courage, sacrifice, and the pursuit of a greater good.

The archetypal hero holds profound significance within a culture, serving as a universal template for both individual and societal advancement. This figure inspires people to confront and surmount obstacles through acts of bravery and selflessness, while simultaneously embodying the fundamental values and aspirations of the culture from which it originates. Narratives such as the Hero's Journey encapsulate these themes, providing a structured approach to understanding personal transformation, ethical growth, and the victory of human consciousness over various internal and external challenges. Through these compelling stories, cultures foster a sense of collective identity and shared ambition that resonates across generations, reinforcing the importance of resilience and moral integrity in the face of adversity.

Sinhabahu is revered as a quintessential hero within Sri Lankan culture, symbolizing the archetypal journey of triumph over adversity and representing the mythological roots of the Sinhala people. His narrative encapsulates the essence of resilience and the struggle for identity, making him a pivotal figure in the cultural consciousness. In contrast, Madduma Bandara epitomizes the child hero, showcasing remarkable courage in the face of imminent execution, thus highlighting the theme of innocence confronting grave challenges. Additionally, other notable figures such as King Dutugamunu, Keppetipola Disawe and Puran Appu emerge as significant heroes, each embodying distinct archetypes of national resistance, cultural revival, and military strength. These warriors not only reflect the valor and determination of their time but also serve as enduring symbols of the collective spirit and heritage of the Sri Lankan people, reinforcing the narrative of heroism that is deeply woven into the fabric of the nation’s history.

 

Transformative Journey of Sinhabahu

The transformative journey of Sinhabahu is a profound narrative that encapsulates themes of identity, redemption, and the quest for belonging. Sinhabahu's early life is marked by a struggle to reconcile his dual heritage, which sets the stage for his eventual metamorphosis. As he navigates the complexities of his existence, he faces numerous challenges that test his strength and resolve. His journey is not merely a physical one; it is also an emotional and spiritual odyssey that leads him to confront his fears and embrace his true self. Through trials and tribulations, Sinhabahu evolves from a being caught between two worlds into a figure of strength and leadership, ultimately finding his place within the societal fabric. This transformation is not only significant for him personally but also catalyzes change within his community, illustrating the power of self-discovery and the importance of embracing one's roots.

 

The Connection Between Sinhabahu and Hindu Mythology

The narrative of Sinhabahu, a prominent figure in Sri Lankan folklore, exhibits intriguing parallels with elements of Hindu mythology, particularly in its themes of heroism, divine lineage, and the interplay between human and supernatural realms. Sinhabahu is often depicted as a superhuman with enormous strength and nobility. This dual heritage resonates with the Hindu concept of avatars, where divine beings take on various forms to fulfill cosmic duties. Furthermore, the tale of Sinhabahu's journey to establish a kingdom in Sri Lanka mirrors the epic quests found in Hindu epics, such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, where protagonists face formidable challenges and engage in battles that determine the fate of their realms. The lion, a symbol of power and courage in both traditions, further cements the connection, as it appears in various forms across Hindu texts, representing divine protection and royal authority. Thus, the story of Sinhabahu not only enriches the cultural tapestry of Sri Lanka but also reflects the broader themes present in Hindu mythology, illustrating the shared narrative motifs that transcend geographical boundaries.

 

Beowulf and Sinhabahu

The ancient English epic poem Beowulf shares notable similarities with the tale of Sinhabahu. Beowulf, recognized as the oldest surviving epic in the English language, dates back to around 700 AD and has undergone numerous retellings before being transcribed. This narrative follows the heroic journey of a prince who confronts and defeats the fearsome monster Grendel, ultimately liberating his people from terror. Both Beowulf and Sinhabahu, along with contemporary narratives such as Star Wars, particularly the conflict between Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader, illustrate a recurring theme of paternal conflict. In these stories, the son often rises against the father's authority, embodying a primal animosity that culminates in acts of patricide. This motif underscores a deep-seated struggle for identity and power, reflecting the complexities of familial relationships across different cultures and eras.

Although Beowulf and the Sri Lankan myth of Sinhabahu originate from different cultural backgrounds and possess unique storylines, they share several notable similarities. Both narratives feature heroic protagonists who are of noble descent, embodying the ideals of bravery and valor. Central to their tales is the confrontation with formidable, monstrous adversaries that threaten their realms, highlighting the theme of the hero's struggle against chaos and evil. Furthermore, the legacies of these characters are deeply intertwined with their extraordinary feats and the strength they exhibit, which ultimately shape the destinies of their people and kingdoms. Each story serves as a foundational myth within its respective culture, symbolizing a significant era marked by heroic endeavors and the establishment of societal values, thus reinforcing the importance of these figures in the collective memory and identity of their cultures.

 

Symbols and Cultural Meanings in the Legend of Sinhabahu

Cultural symbols encompass a range of objects, words, and actions that embody the shared meanings, values, and beliefs prevalent within a particular society, thereby facilitating communication and reinforcing a sense of group identity. These symbols can take various forms, including tangible items, specific behaviors, and linguistic expressions, all of which offer a window into the collective consciousness of a culture and act as vital tools for both individual expression and communal solidarity. It is important to recognize that the significance attributed to a symbol is not universal; rather, it is shaped by cultural context and can differ markedly between societies or even evolve within the same culture over time. This dynamic nature of symbols underscores their role in reflecting and shaping the identities and experiences of individuals within a cultural framework.

The Legend of Sinhabahu is rich with symbolic elements that convey deeper meanings and cultural values. One of the most prominent symbols is the lion, which represents strength, courage, and nobility. The lion, or Sinha, serves as a pivotal symbol, embodying the origins of the Sinhala ethnic group and representing a powerful male archetype that resonates deeply with the identity of the Sri Lankan people. In this context, Obeyesekere offers a deep exploration of how symbols, cultural meanings, and individual concepts undergo transformation, adaptation, and redefinition over time, significantly impacting Sri Lankan society.

 

The Application of Psychoanalytic Concepts to the Sinhabahu Myth

The application of psychoanalytic concepts to the Sinhabahu myth is explored through the lens of ethnopsychoanalysis, which interprets the narrative as a profound psychological drama that encapsulates the archetypal conflicts inherent in the human psyche.

This approach delves into the myth's characters and their interactions, revealing the underlying emotional and psychological struggles that resonate with universal human experiences. By examining the myth in this context, one can uncover the symbolic representations of internal conflicts, such as the battle between primal instincts and societal expectations, as well as the quest for identity and belonging. The rich tapestry of the Sinhabahu story thus serves as a mirror reflecting the complexities of human nature, illustrating how these timeless themes continue to shape our understanding of self and society.

Sinhabahu's actions were significantly shaped by a range of unconscious motivations that drove his behavior. These hidden, instinctual forces acted as powerful motivators, often leading him to act without full awareness of his decisions. The act of killing his father was not merely a symbolic gesture; it was a tangible act of violence rooted in the primal aggression that resides within the unconscious mind. This brutal act may have left Sinhabahu with a lingering sense of guilt, stemming from the deep-seated moral conflicts that arose from patricide. In an attempt to reconcile his internal turmoil, he sought to establish a new kingdom and initiate a fresh lineage, perhaps as a means of asserting his authority and overcoming his feelings of guilt. However, his unresolved Oedipal conflicts further complicated his psyche, ultimately leading him to engage in incestuous relationships, reflecting the profound impact of his unconscious drives on his actions and decisions.

 

Symbolic Transformation in the Sinhabahu Myth

Symbolic transformation encompasses the dynamic processes through which symbols, meanings, and cultural elements undergo change and development across various contexts and over time. This phenomenon significantly impacts societal norms, shapes personal identity, and influences our comprehension of the world around us. It manifests in cultural evolution, where symbols adapt to reflect new social realities and dynamics, as well as in individual psychological growth, exemplified by Carl Jung's exploration of how symbols facilitate the transformation of the individual psyche.

Additionally, symbolic transformation is evident in the realms of art and design, where creators skillfully manipulate existing images to forge new symbolic interpretations and convey complex ideas. Furthermore, this concept extends into more technical domains, such as the transformation of mathematical objects within symbolic languages, illustrating the versatility and breadth of symbolic transformation across diverse fields of human endeavor.

The Sihabahu myth has had a profound impact on the collective identity and social structures of the Sinhala nation, serving as a foundational narrative that has shaped its cultural landscape. This myth not only redefined the beliefs and practices of the Sinhala people but also acted as a catalyst for the evolution of their societal norms and values. As the myth permeated various aspects of life in Sri Lanka, it facilitated significant symbolic transformations that influenced the formation of institutions and community practices. The reverberations of the Sihabahu myth are evident in the way it has shaped the identity of the Sinhala nation, fostering a sense of unity and belonging among its people. Consequently, the myth has played a crucial role in the ongoing development of Sri Lankan society, intertwining with its historical narrative and contributing to the rich tapestry of cultural heritage that defines the nation today.

Obeyesekere’s insights are particularly illuminating when it comes to the evolution of the Sinhabahu narrative. He adeptly analyzes how this story has transformed over time, highlighting its significant cultural and anthropological ramifications. By delving into the layers of meaning embedded within the tale, he reveals how it reflects the values, beliefs, and social structures of the communities that have embraced it. His examination not only underscores the narrative's relevance in contemporary discourse but also emphasizes its role in shaping identity and cultural heritage. Through this analysis, Obeyesekere contributes to a deeper understanding of the interplay between folklore and societal dynamics, showcasing the enduring power of storytelling in human experience.

Obeyesekere explores the intricate ways in which cultures create and utilize symbolic frameworks, such as myths and rituals, to address and reinterpret fundamental psychological challenges that are universally experienced. His analysis delves into the mechanisms through which these cultural constructs serve not only as coping strategies but also as means of understanding and giving meaning to the human experience. By examining various cultural contexts, Obeyesekere highlights how these symbolic systems reflect the collective psyche and provide individuals with a sense of identity and belonging. This investigation reveals the profound relationship between cultural expressions and psychological phenomena, illustrating how societies navigate existential questions and emotional struggles through the lens of their unique traditions and narratives.

 

Anthropological Interpretation of the Sinhabahu Myth

Anthropological interpretation involves deciphering the complexities of cultures and human behaviors by exploring the intricate "web of significance" or "webs of meaning" that individuals construct and navigate, rather than attempting to identify overarching universal principles. This approach emphasizes the importance of context and the subjective experiences of people within their cultural frameworks. In this light, Obesekara provides a comprehensive analysis of the Sinhabahu myth, illustrating how this narrative serves as a reflection of the values, beliefs, and social structures inherent in the culture from which it originates. By examining the myth through an anthropological lens, one can uncover the deeper meanings and implications it holds for the community, revealing how such stories shape identity and influence social dynamics.

The Anthropological Interpretation of the Sinhabahu Myth delves into the cultural and social significance of this narrative within the context of Sri Lankan society. Sinhabahu becomes the progenitor of the Sinhalese people and serves as a foundational legend that encapsulates themes of identity and power.   From an anthropological perspective, the myth can be seen as a reflection of the historical and social dynamics of the Sinhalese community, illustrating their quest for legitimacy and unity in a diverse cultural landscape. The lion, a symbol of strength and royalty, represents not only the valor of the Sinhalese but also their aspirations for sovereignty and cultural pride. By examining the myth through an anthropological lens, one can gain insights into how such stories function as vehicles for cultural transmission, reinforcing social norms and collective memory while also addressing existential questions about lineage, belonging, and the human condition.

 

Sinabahu - A Paradigmatic Myth

The myth of Sinhabahu has emerged as a foundational narrative and a paradigmatic myth within Sinhala culture, serving as a rich source of symbols and archetypes that resonate deeply with the identity and values of the community.

A paradigmatic myth serves as a crucial, archetypal narrative that lays the groundwork for understanding the origins, identity, and values of a culture. This foundational story acts as a narrative framework that not only shapes the beliefs and social structures of a society but also influences its worldview. By providing a culturally significant reference point, such myths are often invoked to elucidate contemporary issues and to offer guidance for future directions. A prime example of such a myth is the tale of Sinhabahu in Sri Lanka, which plays a pivotal role in forging a national identity through a shared origin narrative. This myth encapsulates the essence of the culture, reinforcing communal bonds and collective values that resonate through generations.

Cultures are characterized by foundational myths that serve to create and uphold a collective worldview, elucidate the origins and essence of the universe, and define humanity's role within it. These narratives not only reinforce societal norms and values but also offer essential guidance for navigating life's complexities. By legitimizing various customs, rituals, and aspects of identity, these myths provide a framework through which individuals can understand their place in the world. They encapsulate the symbolic interpretations of a community's shared reality, acting as a navigational tool for successive generations as they confront the challenges of existence. Through these stories, cultures transmit wisdom and insights that shape the moral and ethical landscape of society, ensuring continuity and cohesion across time.

The tale of Sinhabahu serves as a quintessential example of an ideal myth, encapsulating the cultural heritage, origins, and identity of a nation. Such narratives are not unique to any single culture; rather, they resonate across various societies worldwide, each offering a unique lens through which to view human experience. These paradigmatic myths function as foundational stories that help individuals comprehend the complexities of existence and human behavior. For instance, the Greek myth of Sisyphus poignantly illustrates the concept of futile labor, while the Old Testament's Exodus narrative stands as a cornerstone for the identity of Israel. Similarly, the myth of Romulus and Remus provides the legendary backdrop for the founding of Rome. Beyond these examples, myths often encompass creation stories, heroic journeys, and explanatory tales that seek to clarify the underlying reasons for existence and the nature of the world. Through these rich narratives, societies articulate their values, beliefs, and collective memories, thereby reinforcing their cultural identity and continuity.

 

Conclusion

Gananath Obeyesekere's "The Work of Culture: Symbolic Transformation in Psychoanalysis and Anthropology" delves into the intricate ways in which cultural symbolic systems in South Asia, with a particular focus on Sri Lanka, serve to navigate and reshape psychological challenges. The book critically examines the Oedipus complex through the lenses of Hindu and Buddhist traditions, juxtaposing these interpretations with Freudian theories to highlight their relevance within specific cultural practices. By investigating the dynamic relationship between psychoanalysis and anthropology, Obeyesekere seeks to illuminate the nuances of human symbolic expression and the deeper meanings embedded in cultural contexts. This exploration not only enriches our understanding of psychological dilemmas but also underscores the significance of cultural frameworks in shaping individual and collective identities.

Obeyesekere postulates that the Sinhabahu story is a Sri Lankan "Oedipus narrative," and this myth functions as a cultural counterpart to the Greek Oedipus story. By positioning the Sinhabahu myth alongside the Oedipus narrative, Obeyesekere emphasizes the significance of local folklore in understanding broader human experiences, illustrating how different cultures articulate similar existential dilemmas through their unique storytelling traditions.

Obeyesekere highlights a notable aspect of the Sinhabahu myth: the absence of any indication of remorse or ethical concerns regarding the act of parricide, which is the killing of one's father. This lack of emotional conflict within the narrative is particularly striking, as it raises questions about the moral implications of such a grave act. In many cultural stories, parricide is often accompanied by feelings of guilt or regret, serving as a reflection of the societal values surrounding familial bonds and the sanctity of life. However, in the case of Sinhabahu, the narrative seems to present the act as a straightforward event, devoid of any moral scrutiny or emotional fallout. This absence invites deeper analysis of the cultural context in which the myth was created, suggesting a different set of values or beliefs regarding authority, power, and familial relationships. The implications of this narrative choice are significant, as they challenge conventional understandings of morality and the human experience in relation to familial obligations.

He explores the notion of "symbolic remove," a term he uses to describe the intricate process through which symbolic forms, deeply embedded in cultural frameworks, are both created and redefined through the lens of individual cognition. This concept highlights the interplay between personal and cultural symbols, illustrating how they collectively influence individual identity while simultaneously contributing to broader societal meanings. Obeyesekere's analysis offers a sophisticated perspective on the ways in which cultural symbols evolve, emphasizing the dynamic relationship between individual experiences and the collective cultural narrative.

 

References

Ahmed, S. (2012). Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory Oedipus complex: A critical study with reference to D. H. Lawrence’s “Sons and Lovers. Internal Journal of English and Literature Vol. 3(3), pp. 60-70.

Campbell, Joseph, 1968 & 2004. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Oxford: Princeton University Press.

Fischer, M. J. and Dirsmith, M. W. (1995), "Strategy, technology, and social processes within professional cultures: A negotiated order, ethnographic perspective", Symbolic Interaction, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 381-412.

Jutta von Buchholtz. (2000). Animals and the Psyche.Quarterly News.

Lewis, M. P. (2009). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Texas.

Loewald, H.W. (2000). The Waning of the Oedipus Complex.J Psychother Pract Res. 9(4): 239–249.

Millar, K. (2011). The Power of Cultural Symbolism. Retrieved from http://www.societyandself.com/the-power-of-cultural-symbolism.html


Obeyesekere, G. (1990). The Work of Culture: Symbolic Transformation in Psychoanalysis and Anthropology. University of Chicago Press.

Perelberg, R.J. (2009). Murdered father; dead father: revisiting the Oedipus complex.Int J Psychoanal. 90(4):713-32.

Phelan. J.E. (2005). Consequences of the Unresolved Oedipal Paradigm: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, Vol. 27, No. 3-4.

Scott, A. (1990).The ethics of heroism in medieval and American Indian tales. Am Indian Alsk Native Ment Health Res. 3(3):37-58.

Stenudd, S. (2006). Psychoanalysis of Myth. Retrieved from http://www.stenudd.com/myth/freudjung/


Volkan, V.D. (1995.) Totem and Taboo in Romania: A Psychopolitical Diagnosis. Mind and Human Interaction, 2: 66-83.